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Neuromuscular Disease
Upper motor neuron disorders are caused by lesions in the brain and spinal cord proximal to the anterior horn cell, clinically resulting in spastic paralysis (Table 1).
The CNS controls the motion of the peripheral nervous system. Disruption of CNS control over the peripheral nervous system results in a jerky uncoordinated motion known as spasticity. Stroke and cerebral palsy are common spastic neuromuscular disorders. Lower motor neuron disorders involve pathology from the anterior horn cell extending distally to the peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction, and muscle. Lower motor neuron diseases clinically manifest with flaccid paralysis. Examples of lower motor neuron disease include polio, CMT, and muscular dystrophy. Neuromuscular disorders can also be grouped on the basis of inherited and acquired. Inherited neuromuscular disorders involving the foot include Charcot-Marie Tooth Disease and muscular dystrophy. Acquired neuromuscular disorders involving the foot and ankle include stroke, cerebral palsy, and head and spinal cord injury. The quickest way to clinically assess UMN from LMN disease is to test the deep tendon reflexes. Recall the deep tendon reflexes are graded as: 1/5= hypotonic 2/5= Normal 3/5= hypertonic 4/5=clonus 5/5=tonus UMN diseases result in increased tone (3/5-5/5) of the deep tendon reflexes.
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Muscle Testing
Muscle testing is critical in the evaluation of the neuromuscular foot since most neuromuscular disease is associated with significant muscular imbalances and weakness. Muscle power is graded as: 0/5= absence of voluntary muscle contraction 1/5= Muscle contracture without movement (twitch) 2/5=Movement with gravity eliminated 3/5=Movement against gravity 4/5=Movement against gravity and partial resistance 5/5=Movement against gravity and against full resistance With a tendon transfer, the muscle will lose at least one grade of muscle strength Coleman Block Test The Coleman Block Test assesses hindfoot flexibility independent of forefoot position. Is the hindfoot varus compensatory to forefoot valgus? A 1-inch high block is placed under the lateral forefoot while the Patient is standing. If the hindfoot rotates out of varus, the varus deformity is flexible and secondary to the plantar-flexed 1st ray. The hindfoot varus will correct with appropriate forefoot surgical correction. If the hindfoot does not rotate out of varus with the lateral block, then the hindfoot varus is rigid and a lateral calcaneal closing wedge osteotomy is indicated.
Stroke
Cerebrovascular disease or stroke refers to all vascular disorders of the brain and is the most common neurological disorder with claiming 500,000 victims per year. Stroke is caused by cerebral thrombosis in three-quarters of cases. Cognitively, stroke frequently results in impaired thinking, decreased learning ability, loss of short-term memory, and loss of ability to perform previously learned actions (apraxia). Lesions in the left hemisphere cause inability to speak (aphasia). Acute stroke results in spasticity and weakness, which generally peaks after several weeks. Lesions on one side of the brain result in motor involvement in the opposite extremity. The most common pattern of motor involvement is spastic hemiplegia, which involves paralysis of both the upper and lower extremity on the same side of the body. Usually the upper extremity is more affected. Recovery of motor function when it does occur takes place within six months. The foot takes on equinovarus posturing in the stroke patient, which may result in pain, callosities, and ulcerations of the prominent lateral malleolus and 5th metatarsal head/styloid process area. The equinovarus foot type causes overpull of the long flexors of the foot, which results in severe digital contractures including: hammered hallux, hammer toes, mallet toes, claw toes and clinodactyly. Painful hard and soft corns and ulcerations may develop over the proximal phalangeal joint of contracted digits and in between the toes. Nails frequently become mycotic and dig into the skin. Primary emphasis in stroke rehabilitation is to prevent contractures from forming. A contracture is defined as fixed shortening of soft tissues with stiffness and loss of elasticity resulting in loss of motion of surrounding joints. Contractures develop following joint immobilization secondary to severe spasticity or paralysis. Mobilization of the spastic lower limb with passive joint manipulation will prevent joint contractures from forming. Once the joint is stretched with passive range of motion exercises, the stretched position must be maintained by splinting. Muscle tone can also be decreased with systemic pharmacologic agents such as baclofen and diazepam and local motor nerve blocks with lidocaine or phenol. Approximately 75% will regain some level of ambulation. The post-stroke patient walks with a circumductory gait. Significant spasticity is usually present in the stroke patient and generally involves treatment with a solid ankle foot orthosis of plastic or metal variety.
Head Trauma
There are 500,000 victims of head trauma each year, frequently involving young adult males. Initial treatment entails physical, occupational, and speech therapy with stretching, serial casting, splinting, and occasional nerve blocks for modulating hypertonicity. After 18 months, spontaneous recovery is thought to be uncommon. Patients may require an AFO for accommodation of spastic equinovarus foot deformity. The equinovarus foot with claw toes may be corrected with Achilles tendon lengthening, split anterior tibial tendon transfer, and intrinsic and extrinsic toe tendon release.
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common central nervous system disease among young adults. The disorder is present in both the brain and the spinal cord and is characterized by scattered areas of myelin degeneration, which causes disruption in the smooth flow of electrical messages from the brain to nerves throughout the body. There is current evidence that the pathogenesis of MS is an autoimmune reaction, possibly involving a virus. The presenting complaint may be visual disturbances, foot drop, weakness of the lower extremities, gait difficulty, or spasticity. As the disease progresses the patient is frequently overwhelmingly fatigued. Muscle weakness, spasticity, tremor, and gait disturbances become apparent. Sensory manifestations include numbness, paresthesia, vertigo, blurred vision, and diminished hearing. The diagnosis of MS is made by the presence of abnormal protein in the cerebrospinal fluid, an abnormal evoked brain response examination, and abnormalities on MRI. Orthopedic treatment consists of appropriate bracing to provide joint stability and canes and crutches to aid ambulation. An important part of treatment of MS is pharmacological. Immunosuppressants control the inflammation that accompanies demyelination. Methylprednisolone is given intravenously and orally to reduce plaque formation in the central nervous system. Muscle spasms are a major problem for many patients with MS. These are treated with the common drugs such as liorisil (Baclofen), diazepam (Valium), clonazepam (Clonopin) and cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril). Pain, fatigue, and depression are controlled with amitriptyline (Elavil), imipramine (Tofranil), and carbamazepine (Tegretol).
Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of nonprogressive brain-damaging disorders affecting 15/1000 infants. Cerebral palsy affects 1% to 2% of all children. One-third of neonates weighing less than five and one-half pounds show signs of this disease. The main forms of CP are: Spastic CP, which is most common affecting about 50-65% of individuals Athetoid CP affects approximately 20% of patients with CP Ataxic CP affects 15% of CP patients See Table 2 Motor Symptoms on page 114 for a glossary of motor problems in CP and other neuromuscular disease.
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The diagnosis is based on delayed milestones and a history of low birth weight and prematurity. Cerebral palsy can involve an ipsilateral arm and leg (hemiplegia), both legs, most common presentation with low birth weight (diplegia), or total involvement (quadriplegia). The total involvement form frequently includes scoliosis, hip dysplasia, and mental retardation. Learning disability, visual or hearing impairment, and seizures may be present in the CP child. The child is usually born hypotonic, but spasticity develops after the first year of life with hypertonic deep tendon reflexes. Equinus deformity results from gastrocnemius-soleus spasticity and manifests as a toe-walking gait in the younger child or a back-kneed gait in the older child. Equinovalgus is most common in diplegia and equinovarus is most common in hemiplegia. Equinovarus is caused by spasticity of both the posterior tibial muscle and the gastrocnemius-soleus muscles. Valgus foot deformity results from a combination of peroneal muscle spasticity and gastrocsoleus muscle spasticity. The lower extremity in cerebral palsy at the hip is internally rotated, adducted, and flexed. The knee may be slightly flexed due to hamstring tightness. Tightness of the hip adductor muscles, hamstring muscles, together with tight spastic posterior leg muscles, result in the characteristic crouch gait with scissoring at the hips and toe-walking. Drop foot results from excessive strength of the plantarflexors or weakness of the dorsiflexors. Adaptive shortening of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscle in conjunction with contraction of the posterior capsule of the ankle and subtalar joint and thickening of the neck of the talus will create a fixed ankle equinus deformity. Equally important are contractures of the hamstrings and hip adductors resulting in a scissoring toe-walking gait pattern.
Diagnosis of Cerebral Palsy Most children with cerebral palsy are diagnosed during the first year of life. The patients medical history may reveal prematurity, a floppy baby, and developmental delay in motor milestones. Delayed milestones are important in making the diagnosis. Normal head control occurs at approximately three months, sitting independently by six months, crawling at nine months, standing at twelve months, and walking by twelve to fifteen months. Other common abnormalities include fisting after 3 months of age and a specific hand preference prior to 1 year of age. On physical examination spasticity, hyper-reflexia and toe-walking or the presence of a crouched gait may be present. A child walking on the outer border of the foot may have a varus foot, common in patients with spastic hemiplegia. The foot and leg are likely to be smaller on the more neurologically disturbed side. Physical therapy and orthoses continue to be the primary conservative treatment for control of dynamic equinus in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Physical therapy performed on a daily basis may prevent the development of muscle and joint contractures. Casting is beneficial in the reduction of both muscle tone and contractures especially for ankle equinus. An articulated AFO may improve gait. Surgically lengthening the contracted Achilles tendon is an important part of treatment and generally performed in childhood ages four to seven.
Poliomyelitis
Anterior poliomyelitis is a viral infection resulting in isolated damage to the anterior horn cell. Damage to the anterior horn cells results in flaccid paralysis of the muscles innervated by the affected motor cells, however, there is sensory sparing. The extent of paralysis varies from weakness of one muscle to complete paralysis of all four limbs and the trunk. If the brain stem is affected, the muscles of respiration become paralyzed as well. In 1954, an oral vaccine was produced which largely eradicated polio, however, polio is still common in Third World countries. The acute stage of polio lasts up to four weeks and heralds the onset of flaccid paralysis. The second stage of polio is the stage of convalescence and recovery and is where spontaneous recovery occurs, which can last up to two years. Recovery depends upon the condition of anterior horn cells that innervate the muscles. Anterior horn cells that have been damaged, but not destroyed, may recover their physiologic function and there will be a partial or complete return of muscle power, depending on the relative number of motor cells that recover. If all the neurons that innervate a particular muscle are destroyed, that muscle may be permanently paralyzed. Destroyed cells can never be repaired or replaced. However, after illness, muscle strength can be partially recovered as a result of reinnervation by other motor units to denervated muscle, hypertrophy of some of the surviving innervated muscle fibers, or myofiber type transformation. Seventy-five to 85% of patients with good orthopedic care show marked spontaneous improvement or recovery of muscle function.
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The final stage of polio is the residual stage in which any remaining paralysis will be permanent. Paralyzed muscles are replaced by fibrous tissue. Any spinal segment may be affected, but the brunt is usually L2 through S1 and therefore paralysis is most common in the lower limb in 80 to 90% of cases. The arms are involved in about 30% of polio patients. Slowed bone growth in the vicinity of paralysis accounts for the common limb length discrepancies observed in the disease. Significant limb length difference occurs in one-quarter of individuals who have had polio, usually not greater than 1 inches, but can be as great as three to four inches. Patients with large limb length differences benefit from external lifts on the entire sole of the shoe. When the muscles surrounding a joint are paralyzed, the joint becomes flail and unstable and likely to stretch and dislocate, such as in severe genu recurvatum. Genu recurvatum is the most common bracing problem at the knee and occurs to avoid collapse of the knee during standing because of weakened quadriceps. The foot may take one of several positions in polio. Ankle instability and footdrop (or heel drop) caused by paralysis of the anterior tibial muscle. A calcaneus foot (rearfoot cavus) is a characteristic polio foot type and is caused by paralyzed triceps surae with strong tibialis anterior and strong invertors and evertors. The calcaneal pitch angle may be greater than 30. The heel may be in severe varus or valgus. When the invertors of the foot are paralyzed, the foot goes into extreme valgus. Valgus deformity results from gravitational forces produced by bearing weight on a flail foot.
Post-Polio Syndrome
In polio survivors ten to forty years after recovering from acute polio, many individuals are now complaining of several new problems attributed to their former illness. The post-polio syndrome is a set of symptoms, which consists of fatigue, new progressive muscle weakness, and atrophy and muscle pain. It has been estimated that as many
as 80% of polio survivors might experience the disorder. The etiology of post-polio syndrome is postulated to be decompensation of the balance between denervation and reinnervation after a generalized neuronal disease where the remaining motor neurons can no longer maintain new sprouts and denervation exceeds reinnervation. Diagnosis is by exclusion because no test is specific for post-polio syndrome. Post-polio syndrome is commonly associated with deconditioning, obesity, gait disturbance, and disturbances in activities of daily living. Patients experience new difficulties with walking and ascending stairs. Gait disturbances commonly occur in patients who previously used ambulatory aids, such as canes, crutches, or braces, and then discarded them. The cause of these gait problems is progressive weakness, pain, osteoarthritis, and joint instability resulting from weakened muscle, strain on ligaments, and malalignment. The patient should return to their former brace or cane, but patients often refuse to do this because they do not want to give in to the disability. If the patient does consent to use a cane or crutch, it is necessary to evaluate shoulder function first to avoid strain on this frequently weakened joint. Patients with post-polio syndrome have been found to benefit from a carefully selected exercise program, rest for the exercised muscle group, and the use of an orthosis. Patients with the least neuronal activity may need to return to a motorized wheelchair.
Spina bifida results in paralysis, complete lack of sensation, often with paralysis of urinary and anal sphinctors. Patients develop foot ulcers from the lack of sensation and various foot deformities occur from the muscle balances, which are created including teratologic clubfoot and vertical talus, which is actually more commonly associated with spina bifida than occurring as an isolated deformity. Equinovarus is the most common foot deformity in spina bifida.
Peripheral Neuropathy
The two most common causes of peripheral neuropathy in the United States are diabetes mellitus and alcoholism. Trauma and entrapment are common, but considered in the differential diagnosis of mononeuropathies. The most frequent pattern of polyneuropathy is seen with metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, nutritional deficiency, and renal failure. Neuropathy develops slowly, often over months or years, and begins with sensory abnormalities in the lower extremities. Sensory loss manifested as numbness, tingling, muscle weakness, atrophy,
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and diminished deep tendon reflexes are the hallmarks of peripheral neuropathy. Pain when present tends to be worse at night. Most neuropathies give rise to a mixed sensorimotor disturbance, therefore, the patient will experience weakness as well as loss of sensation usually described as numbness. The first manifestation in symmetrical polyneuropathies are usually in the legs, and the legs are involved more than the arms. Distal muscle involvement occurs more frequently than involvement of proximal muscles. Peripheral neuropathy involves muscles of extension and abduction such as the anterior group leg muscles and the peroneal muscles. Therefore, drop foot and weakness in eversion are much more common than weak posterior group muscles. Paresthesias are usually described as numbness, tingling, buzzing, or a feeling of constriction. Peripheral neuropathy may be confused initially with myopathic disease since both kinds of disorders may involve varying degrees of weakness with diminished or absent reflexes. Peripheral neuropathy is distinguished from myopathic disease by its predominantly distal muscle involvement where as myopathies tend to affect the proximal muscles of the pelvic and pectoral girdle. Also myopathies, in contrast with peripheral neuropathies, do not have a sensory component (Table 3).
Sensory
Atrophy
Pseudohypertrophy of calves with fibrous tissue and fat replacing muscles Normal Muscular dystrophy, myositis
Exceptions
Myotonic dystrophy-adult inherited muscular dystrophy affects distal muscles present with foot drop
The characteristic foot in CMT consists of cavus foot with anterior equinus with equinocavovarus with hammered or cocked-up hallux.
Refsums Disease
(Type IV Hereditary Sensory motor neuropathy) is caused by abnormal lipid metabolism and results in accumulation of phytanic acid in the serum up to 50 times greater than normal. Associated findings include ichthyosis, night blindness, and preceding febrile illness. Peripheral muscle weakness, areflexia, dropfoot, pes cavus, and claw toes are also observed.
Friedreichs Ataxia
Friedreichs Ataxia is a spinocerebellar degeneration causing hypertonicity and ataxia. It is caused by autosomal recessive inheritance. The onset is childhood or adolescence. Hallmarks of this disease include ataxia, cavus foot, clawtoes and kyphoscoliosis.
Diabetic Neuropathy
Distal symmetrical sensorimotor polyneuropathy is present in approximately 25% to 60% of people with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy is a progressive neuropathy, initially involving the more distal
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parts of the lower extremities and then progressing centrally to involve the hands, thighs, and in severe cases the trunk. The major symptoms consist of numbness in the legs and feet, hyperesthesia, hyperpathia, with aching and burning pain. Not all patients have pain. Sensory symptoms consist of reduced or absent sensation to pain, touch, cold, heat, and vibration. Slowing in motor and sensory conduction is a common finding in diabetics and is attributed to axonal degeneration with secondary demyelination. Autonomic neuropathy has recently been found to be an important component of diabetic periperal neuropathy.
Alcoholic Neuropathy
Alcoholic neuropathy is slowly progressive distal sensorimotor polyneuropathy. The disorder begins distally and slowly spreads more proximally. Patients present with paresthesias, pain, and weakness. Foot drop, wrist drop, proximal weakness with difficulty rising from a squatting position or chair may eventually be present. Plantar ulcers and charcot foot-type disorders may occur. Alcoholic neuropathy only develops in cases of long-term alcohol abuse that involves dietary deficiency. Nutritional neuropathies (most frequently vitamin B12, but also other B vitamins, vitamin A, E, and folate) are common causes of peripheral neuropathy. Connective tissue disease is sometimes associated with peripheral neuropathy. However, negative antinuclear antibody testing and normal erythrocyte sedimentation tests rule out connective tissue disease as a cause of peripheral neuropathy. HIV neuropathy is a distal symmetric sensory polyneuropathy present in the late stages of HIV infection. Cancer can cause peripheral neuropathy and can be tested for by serum protein electrophoresis. Any medication or drug potentially can cause peripheral neuropathy (See Table 4 on Page 119) for mnemonic and summary of peripheral neuropathies.
A N G
R A P I S T
(Adapted from BG Zier, Essentials of Internal Medicine in Clinical Podiatry, WB Saunders, Philadelphia, 1990.)
Electrodiagnosis
Indications
Electrodiagnosis refers to nerve conduction velocity (NCV) testing and electromyography (EMG). Generally both tests are done at the same time. It is the EMG that is somewhat painful. Patients should be referred for electrodiagnosis for a problem that is presumed to arise from the neuromuscular system. Symptoms such as pain, weakness, and numbness may be involved with lesions of the peripheral nerve. Electrodiagnosis is particularly useful in localizing a lesion along the route of a peripheral nerve. A major indication for NCV/EMG testing is to distinguish between demyelinating and axonal neuropathy. These two conditions are clinically indistinguishable. Although EMG/NCV cannot determine the etiology of a specific peripheral neuropathy, by categorizing peripheral neuropathy into demyelinating and axonal neuropathy, and correlating this with clinical symptoms and patient history, this narrows things down and aids with diagnosis. Electrodiagnosis is also helpful in distinguishing a neuropathic (neurologic) process from a myopathic (muscle) disease. Although neuropathy tends to affect the distal leg muscles resulting in foot drop and myopathy affects the more proximal muscles resulting in weakness of the pelvic and pectoral girdle musculature, there is frequently great clinical overlap. For example myotonic dystrophy is a muscle disease (adult muscular dystrophy) which affects distal leg muscles resulting in foot drop. Guillain Barre Syndrome is a generalized neuropathy, which may result in paralysis of the entire lower extremity (Table 5). Nerve conduction velocity testing can determine the exact location of a nerve entrapment and can differentiate an entrapment from a diffuse neuropathy. Finally, electrodiagnosis can evaluate surgical intervention and can be used for medicolegal purposes. See Table 5 on page 121 for a summary of indications for NCV/EMG.
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an NCV report include: CMAP, SNAP, and MUP. The CMAP is the Compound Muscle Action Potential and evaluates the action potential of the entire muscle. The SNAP is the Sensory Nerve Action Potential, which evaluates the action potential of a sensory nerve. The MUP refers to the Motor Unit Potential. This is the action potential of a single motor unit. The NCV test measures the distal latency, amplitude, and nerve conduction velocity of a peripheral motor, sensory or mixed nerve. The distal latency is the time between stimulus of the nerve and the response and is generally recorded in milliseconds. Normal values for nerves of the leg are in the range of 3-6 milliseconds. The amplitude tells how many muscle fibers are firing in a motor unit and is recorded in millivolts. In the leg, very roughly 2.5 millivolts is a typical normal value. The nerve conduction velocity is the speed of the nerve in meters per second and is in the range of 40 to 60 meters per second. Generally nerve conduction velocities of the nerves to the upper extremity are faster (~50 meters per second) than nerves to the lower extremity muscles (~40 meters per second). The fastest a nerve impulse can travel is about 80 meters per second. If you get back an NCV for a patient that reports NCV values of significantly greater than this (i.e., 200 meters per second) this is impossible. Nerve conduction velocity is one-half the adult normal value in the neonate and reaches its true normal value at about age 5 years. Nerve conduction velocity declines after age 60. See Table 6 for a summary of Nerve Conduction Velocity Values.
The myelin surrounding a nerve is responsible for the speed of the nerve conduction velocity of the nerve. Therefore large myelinated nerves have much higher velocities than unmyelinated nerves (7-10 meters per second). For this same reason, nerve conduction velocities are markedly decreased in demyelinating neuropathies where the nerve begins to lose its myelin. Demyelinating diseases are characterized by severely decreased nerve conduction velocities, markedly prolonged distal latencies, and normal (or only slightly decreased) amplitude (Table 7). In demyelinating neuropathy there is at least a 60% reduction in nerve conduction velocity. Demyelination is directly responsible for reduced speed of the nerve and may produce severe motor and sensory deficiencies. Clinically, demyelinating polyneuropathies have greater motor impairment than sensory and little or no pain. Examples of demylinating neuropathies include Charcot-Marie Tooth Disease Type 1A, Guillain Barre Syndrome, and peripheral neuropathy associated with cancer (Table 7 on Page 123).
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Axonal neuropathies are usually milder than demyelinating neuropathies and are characterized by spontaneous activity in distal muscles with low amplitude evoked responses, with relatively normal conduction velocity (Table 6 on page 122. Conduction velocities are normal despite extensive axonal degeneration. This is because myelin is responsible for the speed of the nerve impulse and the myelin remains intact in axonal neuropathies. Clinically, axonal polyneuropathies are symmetrical and begin distally with subacute onset. Polyneuropathies due to axonal degeneration are common and include diabetic neuropathy, alcoholic neuropathy, Charcot-Marie Tooth Disease Type 2, and neuropathies caused by nutritional deficiency, connective tissue disease and toxins. Many neuropathies are due to mixed axonal-demyelinating processes. Diabetes mellitus may also be associated with a mixed peripheral neuropathy. Other mixed disorders include neuropathy associated with multiple myeloma or lymphoma, and several drug-induced neuropathies. Keep in mind that the NCV/EMG testing works best on large myelinated peripheral sensory and motor nerves. For this reason patients with upper motor conditions such as stroke, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, trauma to the brain and spinal cord including herniated lumbar disc may be clinically paralyzed yet have normal NCV/EMG tests. This is because the peripheral nerve system in these individuals is often normal. In primary muscle disease (muscular dystrophy, myositis) the nerve conduction velocity will be normal, but the EMG will be abnormal. Radiculopathies, because they involve the most proximal segment of the nerve, the nerve root, may show a normal NCV test. The F wave and H reflex can be used to test for the presence of a radiculopathy. Although the NCV may be normal in radiculopathy, the EMG test may show involvement of several muscles affected by the nerve root causing the radiculopathy. Anterior horn cell disease (Polio and Amyotrophic Lateral SclerosisALS) may have normal NCVs, but changes will be most apparent on EMG. Peripheral nerve lesions if examined too early may show a normal NCV. Abnormal spontaneous activity (e.g., fibrillations) takes approximately two to four weeks to show up on EMG. If a person claims nerve damage as a result of an accident or surgery and the changes are present on EMG one week after the accident or surgery, the damage was probably present prior to the accident or surgery and is therefore not the cause of the nerve damage. The fact that EMG abnormal spontaneous activity takes between two to four weeks to show up on EMG can be used in legal cases if the patient claiming nerve damage is tested prior to two to four weeks after the accident or surgery. If abnormal spontaneous activity is not present one week after the surgery/accident but becomes present two to four weeks after the accident or surgery, then the surgery/accident could be responsible for the nerve damage. However, the patient could have had an intervening illness that is responsible for the nerve damage. The main contraindications for nerve conduction velocity are cardiac pacemaker and an indwelling cardiac catheter. F Response and H Reflex The F response and H reflex evaluate conduction in the proximal portions of nerve fibers.
F Wave/F Response The F wave is a compound muscle action potential that can be obtained from most muscles by supramaximal electrical stimulation of the nerve. The F wave results from antidromic (opposite the normal direction of conduction) activation of the anterior horn cell motor neurons in the spinal cord, which then sends an impulse back down the nerve orthodromically to stimulate the muscle. The F-wave latency provides information regarding the entire length of the motor nerve from the anterior horn cell in the spinal cord to the muscle fibers it innervates. Thus, in the case of a radiculopathy, for example, routine NCVs involving the below-knee segment may be normal, but the F wave, as it traverses the proximal, abnormal nerve segment, may be delayed. The F response was named because it was first observed in small foot muscles. It is a measure of conduction along the entire length of nerve from the distal point of stimulation to the anterior horn cells and back to the distal recording electrode. Normal values depend on limb length but are usually less than 32 msec in the arms and less than 60 msec in the leg. When the F-response latency is prolonged and distal velocity is normal, slowing occurs in the proximal segment. This pattern is seen in polyradiculopathies and Guillain Barre syndrome. In chronic demyelinating neuropathies, the proximal segments may also be involved and the F response latency may be prolonged. H Reflex The H reflex is considered to be the electrical counterpart of the Achilles reflex. The H reflex is normally found only in the tibial nerve/soleus system or in the median nerve/flexor carpi radialis system. It is one of the few measures of afferent nerve conduction in the proximal portion of sensory nerves and identifies dorsal root pathology when the H reflex is prolonged in conjunction with normal F response latency in the same nerve. A delayed response, in the face of normal NCSs, indicates proximal, usually nerve root disease. The H reflex may indicate upper motor neuron diseases, such as multiple sclerosis.
Electromyography
Electromyography is the study of spontaneous and voluntary electrical wave forms generated in the motor unit and recorded from muscle fibers. The EMG shows the wave form. It is actually the measurement and observation of action potentials caused by depolarization and repolarization of a muscle fiber as a result of injury of an electrode needle. In the EMG study a needle is actually inserted into the muscle belly which can be fairly painful. There are four parts to the EMG study which begins after insertion of the needle. Insertional Activity. This is as the needle is being inserted. This is painful and there should be some spontaneous muscle activity recorded. In fact, absence of insertional activity indicates no functioning muscle fibers or that the electrode was inserted incorrectly and is not in the muscle tissue Muscle at rest. The muscle at rest is electrically silent. Spontaneous activity of any type is abnormal The patient is asked to just think of contracting the muscles. There should be some interference on the screen noted at this point The patient is asked to actively contract the muscle. At this point there should be full electrical activity with what is known as a full interference pattern
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The diagnostic information provided by the EMG test includes: The nature of the motor wave form, e.g., amplitude, number of phases, duration of the wave It analyzes the recruitment pattern, the density of motor units during maximal activation (firing rate, frequency) Tells the type and amount of abnormal spontaneous activity (Table 8). After denervation, muscle fibers fire spontaneously. Spontaneous activity is always abnormal and includes fibrillations, fasciculations, and positive sharp waves.
Interference Pattern
When a muscle contracts, the cumulative electrical activity of all the motor units firing is referred to as the interference pattern. A full interference pattern fills the oscilloscope screen during normal muscle contraction. In neurogenic disorders, axons degenerate, the number of motor units in an individual nerve falls, and the result is an incomplete, or decreased, interference pattern.
Recruitment Pattern
Recruitment pattern refers to the electrical activity generated by all activated motor units within the recording area of a maximally contracting muscle. The recruitment evaluates the frequency of firing of the motor unit. Recruitment may be normal, neuropathic, or myopathic. The recruitment pattern on maximal effort normally should be dense with no peaks in the baseline with an amplitude of 2 to 4 mVolts. In myopathic recruitment, there is a full or increased recruitment with weak contraction. There is early recruitment. Many units are recruited with low level of recruitment in myopathy. A full interference pattern with small amplitude is pathogneumonic for myopathic recruitment. In neuropathic recruitment there is a reduced number of motor units therefore fewer motor units can be recruited, but those that are recruited are large units with many muscle fibers (high amplitude) long duration, and polyphasic. These are signs of chronic denervation.
Insertional Activity
Muscles at rest are electrically silent. The small tension referred to as muscle tone has no EMG equivalent. Insertional activity occurs from activation of muscle fibers with mechanical stimulation of electrode movement. Insertion of the needle electrode into the muscle injures and mechanically stimulates many fibers causing a burst of potentials of short duration (normal insertional activity). Insertional activity is normal. Absence of insertional activity indicates NO FUNCTIONING MUSCLE FIBERS or that the electrode is not in muscle tissue. Increased insertional activity is a feature of myopathic disorders. Normal spontaneous activity during insertion includes end-plate noise generally associated with painful needle placement and end-plate spikes. With slight movement of the electrode, end-plate noise and spike should disappear. It is important not to confuse end-plate spikes and end-plate noise with fibrillation potentials.
Spontaneous Activity
This consists of several kinds of abnormal potentials, the most common being fibrillations, positive sharp waves, and fasciculations. There should be no spontaneous activity. Spontaneous activity is never normal except for brief periods during electrode insertion into the muscle as described above. However, 10% or greater of normal people have positive spontaneous muscle activity in the pedal musculature as a result of the trauma inflicted by daily activities. Minimal to moderate Muscle Contraction. The patient is asked to just think about contracting the muscle. Amplitude is 200-2000 mV; duration is 4-12 msecs. The wave form is diphasic or triphasic. Minimal to moderate muscle contraction is good for demonstrating recruitment. Recruitment initially is by the smaller motor units most easily recruited. Maximal Muscle Contraction. The patient contracts the muscle against maximal resistance to the examiner. The amplitude is 200-2000 mV. Recruitment of larger, previously inactive motor units occurs with complete interference pattern.
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It is possible to miss fibrillations on EMG for the following reasons: Not waiting 2-4 weeks after the injury, doing the EMG too early after the injury; The damage may be too mild to cause denervation and fibrillations should not be present; Temperature of the muscle is too low secondary to circulatory problems; Muscle fiber may be totally inactive due to severe atrophyafter a year fibrillation potentials will cease in complete lesions; ReinnervationThe best sign of reinnervation is fibrillation stops.
Fasciculation Potentials
Fasciculations are commonly known as muscle twitches and can be seen through the skin in contrast with fibrillations. Fasciculation potentials are spontaneous discharges of an entire motor unit or part of a motor unit that comprise all the muscle fibers innervated by a single axon. Seventy percent of normal individuals admit to muscle twitch at periods in their life. Fasciculation potentials are evidence of motor nerve fiber irritability and not of nerve fiber destruction and motor unit denervation. Occasional fasciculation potentialsparticularly in the calves, hands, periocular or paranasal muscles occur in many normal persons. They can last for days or even years in some individuals, without weakness or wasting (benign fasciculations). Shivering induced by low temperature and twitching associated with low serum calcium levels is a form of fasciculatory activity. Fasciculation potentials occur with great frequency in chronic, slowly advancing, destructive diseases of the anterior horn cells such as ALS and progressive spinal muscular atrophy, in the early stages of polio. Fasciculations are thought to return in post-polio syndrome. Fasciculations are associated with proximal diseases such as anterior horn cell disease or radiculopathy. They are less common in peripheral neuropathy.
Polyphasic Potentials
Polyphasic potentials are motor unit action potentials having more than three or four phases. Polyphasic potentials represent asynchronous firing of muscle fibers. They are a sign of damage to muscle fibers. Fewer than 10% of motor unit action potentials in normal individuals are polyphasic. Polyphasic potentials are caused by differences in conduction times over terminal axon branches. Multiple motor units do not fire simultaneously. Polyphasic potentials were formerly called nascent potentials, consisting of low amplitude short duration potentials. Polyphasic potentials appear two-eight months after paralysis in peroneal nerve palsy and are the first sign of recovery. They are a good sign, appearing two months before return of muscle function. They herald reinnervation of denervated muscle.
Nascent Potentials
Nascent potentials are reinnervation potentials. They are highly polyphasic, low amplitude, short duration and appear early in reinnervation.
Giant Potentials
Giant potentials are voluntary motor unit action potentials. Giant potentials are high amplitude, long duration, and polyphasic. Neurogenic recruitment consists of giant action potentials. Selective destruction of small motor units occur; large motor units remain due to axon sprouting anterior horn cells. Polio and ALS are diseases that characteristically have giant action potentials.
Myotonic Discharges
True myotonia is the EMG correlate of the clinical phenomenon of impaired relaxation of a voluntarily induced contraction of a muscle. Myotonic discharges are present only in Myotonic Dystrophy. Myotonic discharges correspond to clinical failure of voluntary relaxation of muscle after forceful contraction. It consists of a high-frequency repetitive discharge, with a waxing and waning of amplitude and frequency producing the well-known dive-bomber sound, the most distinctive sound in EMG. Myotonic discharges are most prominent in the intrinsic hand muscles.
Myokymia
Myokymia consists of persistent involuntary irregular quivering and rippling of muscles at rest. Myokymia consists of bursts of motor unit activity induced by abnormal excitation. Myokymia is most common in periorbital or other facial musculature. Myokymia does not stop in sleep but is abolished by xylocaine block of the nerve innervating the muscle. Myokymia occurs in demyelinating polyneuropathies, i.e., Guillain Barre syndrome, multiple sclerosis.
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Signal Comparisons
Figure 7 shows comparison of neuropathic and myopathic recruitment with normal recruitment. Notice in normal recruitment there is full interference. In neuropathic recruitment there is reduced interference, but high amplitudes of functioning motor units. In myopathic recruitment there is full interference with reduced amplitude.