Summary of Terms Central Nervous System 27 Central Nervous System (CNS)- refers to your brain and your spinal

cord. Memory- the storage, retention, and recall of information including past experiences, knowledge, and thoughts. Short-term Memory- the ability to store information for seconds to minutes after the present moment has passed. Working Memory- special kind of short term memory that refers to the ability to hold information in mind long enough to carry out sequential actions. Long-term Memory- information that is retained for months to years and includes information such as facts, semantics, and autobiographical information. Frontal Cortex- area of the brain where most types of long-term memory appear to be stored. Neuron- also called nerve cell; an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Axon- long projections that send signals from the neurons. Dendrites- much shorter projections and receive signals from other neurons. Synapses- junctions between axons and dendrite, and where neurons communicate. Neurotransmitters- chemical messages which rely, amplify, and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. Pre-synaptic neuron- neuron sending the message before the synapse. Post-synaptic- the neuron receiving the message after the synapse. Synaptic Vesicles- membrane-bound organelles that hold neurotransmitters. Long-term Potentiation (LTP)- a process which strengthens the connection between two neurons. The cellular equivalent of a conditioned response. Amnesia- a severe disruption of memory without deficits in intelligence, attention, perception, or judgement. Anterograde Amnesia- impairment in storing new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia- loss of old memories. Psychogenic Amnesia- temporary loss of identity. Peripheral Nervous System 28 Sound- disturbances of air molecules caused by vibrating objects. Wavelength- the space or distance between the high points of two waves. Frequency- measurement of how fast or how often peaks of a wave go by a certain point. Hertz- the amount of peaks of waves that pass a point in one second. Amplitude- the height of each wave and determines the loudness or volume of the sound and is measured in decibels. Cochlea- a fluid-filled, snail-shaped organ that converts sound pressure into electrical impulses, which are passed to the auditory nerve. Sound Pressure- the difference in pressure between the atmospheric air and the pressure caused by the sound wave. Ossicles- three tiny little bones, the hammer, anvil and stirrup, in the ear where vibrations from sound are transferred on to. Hair Cells- sound receptors for the brain and are a special kind of neuron named for the bundle of hair-like structures at ones end of the cell. Auditory Nerve- receives the electrical signal from the hair cells and send the signal to the auditory cortex in your brain. Auditory Cortex- located on the temporal lobe and is the portion in your brain that processes the sound signals. Tone Deafness- the inability to distinguish between musical notes. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)- part of the peripheral nervous system and is the reason why physiological change associated with your emotional response happens. Peripheral Nervous System- connects your central nervous system to your limbs and organs. Sympathetic System- also know as the "fight or flights" system and is dominant when you need immediate energy, such as situations of emergency or stress. Controls heart rate, blood pressure, adrenaline, and blood flow to skeletal muscles.

Parasympathetic System- dominant when energy can be conserved and thus controls digestion, storage of nutrients, slowing down heart rate, and decreasing respiration. Somatic System- the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary responses. Mechanosensory Receptors- monitor touch, vibration, pressure and tension of the skin. Nociceptors- specialized nerves which detect actual or potential tissue damage.

Smooth & Skeletal System 29 Rods and Cones- neurons that receive light waves in the eye. Rods perceive the intensity or the amplitude of the light wave while cones perceive the frequency. Primary Visual Cortex- responsible for processing information about static and moving objects and pattern recognition. Motor Cortex- the part of your brain that controls movement. Premotor Cortex- responsible for planning and selecting the appropriate movements. Primary Motor Cortex- responsible for the control and execution of voluntary movements. Skeletal Muscle System- the system that connects your muscles that are under voluntary control to your central nervous system. Myofibrils- bundles of contractile unites that contain the machinery to contract the muscle fibers. Sarcomeres- one contractile unit of the myofibrill that consists of thick and thin filaments. Actin- a protein that composes the thin filaments of the sarcomere. Myosin- a protein that compose the thick filaments of the sarcomere. Myosin II- the protein responsible for movement of the skeletal muscles. Mirror Neurons- signal equally when you watch someone do a particular task as they do when you actually perform the task yourself.

Amygdala- a structure in your temporal lobe that helps translate signals from sensory inputs to responses in your autonomic nervous system.

Cardiovascular 30 Cardiovascular System (also called Circulatory System) The bodily system consisting of the heart, blood vessels, and blood that circulates blood throughout the body, delivers nutrients and other essential materials to cells, and removes waste products. Capillaries The main component of the cardiovascular system that bind the arterial and venous sides. It is responsible for the transfer of oxygen and nutrients to the cells and the transfer of metabolic wastes. Metarterioles Any of the small peripheral blood vessels that are structurally and anatomically intermediate between the arterioles and the true capillaries and that contain scattered groups of smooth muscle fibers in their walls. Sphincter A circular band of voluntary or involuntary muscle that encircles an orifice of the body or one of its hollow organs. Veins Any of the blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart from the body's cells, tissues, and organs. Veins are thin-walled and contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood. All veins except the pulmonary vein carry blood with low levels of oxygen. Arterial System Canals that carry oxygenated blood. Atrioventricular Valves (AV) Two valves that ensure blood flows from the atria to the ventricles, and not the other way. Tricuspid Valve The right AV valve; receives venous blood from the entire body. Bicuspid Valve (also called Mitral Valve) The left AV valve; regulates blood flow between the left atrium and left ventricle. Semilunar Valves Either of two valves, one in the aorta and one in the pulmonary artery, consisting of a set of three crescent shaped flaps of tissue and serving to prevent blood from flowing back into the heart after contraction.

Pulmonary Valve A semilunar valve between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle of the heart that prevents the blood from flowing back into the right ventricle. Aortic Valve A semilunar valve between the aorta and the left ventricle of the heart that prevents the blood from flowing back into the left ventricle. Chordae Tendinaea Any of the tendons extending from the papillary muscles to the atrioventricular valves and preventing the valves from moving into the atria during ventricular contraction. Papillary Muscle One of the small bundles of muscles attached to the ventricle walls and to the chordae tendinaea that tighten these tendons during ventricular contraction. Systole The normal rhythmical contraction of the heart, during which the blood in the chambers is forced onward. Inferior Vena Cava Conveys blood from all parts below the diaphragm. Superior Vena Cava Either of two large veins discharging blood into the right atrium of the heart; conveys blood from the head, chest, and upper extremities. Coronary Sinus A large venous channel in the heart wall that receives blood via the coronary veins and empties into the right atrium. Aorta The main trunk of the arterial system, conveying blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all of the body except the lungs. Coronary Arteries The two arteries that supply blood to the heart tissue. Electrocardiogram (ECG) A graphic recording of the electrical activity of the heart, used to evaluate cardiac function and to diagnose arrhythmias and other disorders. Ventricular Depolarization When the ventricle contracts (systole), pushing blood into the aorta, and the atrium is repolarized. Finally, the ventricles repolarize, during which time the atrium relaxes and

refills. AV Conduction Block If the PR interval is greater than 0.2 sec, there is a block in the atria to ventricular systems. QRS Complex Represents ventricular depolarization which is usually 0.06 to 0.1 sec in duration suggesting that this depolarization occurs very fast. ST Segment Represents the time in which the entire ventricle is depolarized. T wave Represents ventricular repolarization and is longer in duration than ventricular depolarization. Syncytium The anatomical and physiological union of cardiac cells. Consider it like a team that works together. The heart has two syncitia: the atrial and ventricular teams. Ventricular Fibrillation An often fatal form of arrhythmia characterized by rapid, irregular fibrillar twitching of the ventricles of the heart in place of normal contractions, resulting in a loss of pulse. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) Emergency procedure for reviving heart and lung function, involving special physical techniques and often the use of electrical and mechanical equipment. Blood Pressure Control 31 Systolic Pressure Blood pressure within the arteries when the heart muscle is contracting in the left ventricle. Diastolic Pressure The blood pressure after the contraction of the heart while the chambers of the heart refill with blood. Inotropism The force that muscles generate at a given muscle length. Positive Inotrope A drug that increases the contractility of the cardiac muscle. Hypertension

An elevated diastolic pressure and/or systolic pressure. Essential (or Primary) Hypertension Hypertension with an unknown cause. Secondary Hypertension The hypertension is due to renal or endocrine disorders. Beta Blockers Any of various substances that interfere with the action of the beta receptors: used primarily to reduce the heart rate or force in the prevention, management, or treatment of angina, hypertension, or arrhythmias. Vasodilator Drugs A drug or chemical that relaxes the smooth muscle in blood vessels, which causes them to dilate. Dilation of arterial blood vessels (mainly arterioles) leads to a decrease in blood pressure. Hypotension Abnormally low blood pressure. Orthostatic Hypotension A fall in blood pressure associated with an upright position, usually occurring as a result of standing still for a long time or rising from a prolonged stay in bed and often causing faintness, dizziness, and vision disturbances. Tachycardia Abnormally rapid heartbeat (over 100 beats per minute). Inotropy Stronger muscle contraction that increases cardiac output. Capillaries 32 Capillaries Any of the tiny blood vessels that connect the smallest arteries (arterioles) to the smallest veins (venules). Capillaries form a network throughout the body for the exchange of oxygen, metabolic waste products, and carbon dioxide between blood and tissue cells. Arteries A blood vessel that conveys blood from the heart to any part of the body. Veins Any of the membranous tubes that form a branching system and carry blood to the heart.

Fenestrated Capillary A blood capillary found in renal glomeruli, intestinal villi, and some glands, in which ultramicroscopic pores of variable size occur. Sinusoidal Capillaries (also called Discontinuous Capillaries) Special forms of fenestrated capillaries that have larger openings in the epithelium allowing red blood cells and serum proteins to enter. Autoregulation Processes that maintain a generally constant physiological state in a cell or organism. AV Shunt A short vessel that directly connects the feeder arteriole and the drainage venule at the opposite end of the bed. It bypasses the capillary bed. Precapillary Sphincters A sphincter of smooth muscle tissue located at the arterial end of a capillary and serving to control the flow of blood to the tissues. Pericytes Vascular smooth muscle cells that are on the outside of the precapillary and post capillary structures that help guide flow within the capillary bed to further optimize metabolite exchange. Their function is not that well known. Oxygen Responsible for cellular respiration. Carbon Dioxide Waste product of cellular respiration. Nutrients Provides nourishment for cellular metabolism. pH A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Osmotic Pressure (also called Colloidal Osmotic Pressure or Oncotic Pressures) The force that a dissolved substance exerts on a semipermeable membrane, through which it cannot penetrate, when separated by it from pure solvent. Hydrostatic Pressure The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting downward force from above. Passive Transport The movement of a chemical substance across a cell membrane without expenditure of energy by the cell, as in diffusion; follows gradient.

Active Transport The movement of a chemical substance through a gradient of concentration or electrical potential in the direction opposite to normal diffusion, requiring the expenditure of energy; against gradient. Transcytosis (also called Vesicular Transport) A mechanism for transcellular transport in which a cell encloses extracellular material in an invagination of the cell membrane to form a vesicle, then moves the vesicle across the cell to eject the material through the opposite cell membrane by the reverse process. Edema An accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in cells, tissues, or body cavities. Brain Edema Swelling of the brain due to the uptake of water in the neuropile and white matter. Respiration / Ventilation 33 Ventilatory System Responsible for bringing air into the lungs and expelling the residual air and metabolic gases from the body. Alveoli Any of the tiny air-filled sacs arranged in clusters in the lungs, in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. Pharynx The tube or cavity, with its surrounding membrane and muscles, that connects the mouth and nasal passages with the esophagus. Medulla The inner part of an organ or structure in plant or animal; also controls ventilation. Diaphragm The major muscle that generates the rhythmic intrathoracic positive and negative pressures. Phrenic Nerve One of a pair of nerves that arises from cervical spinal roots and passes down the thorax to innervate the diaphragm and control breathing. Pnea The rate of ventilation.

Bradypnea Abnormal slowness of respiration. Cardiogenic Edema An excessive accumulation of serous fluid in the heart. Asthma A paroxysmal, often allergic disorder of respiration, characterized by bronchospasm, wheezing, and difficulty in expiration, often accompanied by coughing and a feeling of constriction in the chest.

Cellular Communication 34 Ligands Ligands are molecules secreted by cells that bind to receptors on other cells. Receptor Receptors are found on the surface of cells and are bound to by ligands or other signaling molecules. Intracellular Receptors Intracellular Receptors are receptors that are found within a cell. Endocrine Signaling This type of signaling relies on the secreting of hormones into a circulatory system. Paracrine Signaling Paracrine Signaling is localized signaling done by the release of locally acting signaling molecules into the extracellular space which then diffuse to neighboring cells. Contact-dependent Signaling This is a type of localized signaling in which the two communicating cells must be in physical contact. Autocrine Signaling Autocrine signaling occurs when a cell secretes a hormone that binds to one of its own external receptors. Neuronal Signaling Neuronal Signaling occurs within the cells of the nervous system and involves the release of hormones into localized areas of the nervous system called synapses. Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter is the name given to signaling hormones released by the nervous system.

Intracellular Signals These are signals within a cell that transmit information from the receptors on the outside of the cell to generate a response from the cell. Intracellular Signaling Pathways These pathways are formed by intracellular signals to convey the information from external signals to the part of the cell that needs to respond. Conformational Change A shape-change within a molecule. Hormones & Menstruation 35 Hormones A chemical substance secreted by an endocrine gland or group of endocrine cells that acts to control or regulate specific physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Endocrinology The study of the glands and hormones of the body and their related disorders. Autocrine Of, relating to, promoted by, or being a substance secreted by a cell and acting on surface receptors of the same cell. Paracrine Of, relating to, promoted by, or being a substance secreted by a cell and acting on adjacent cells. Endocrine Hormones that secrete internally. Steroid hormones Steroids that act like hormones (i.e estrogen and testosterone) Peptide hormones A class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. Estrogen Any of several steroid hormones produced chiefly by the ovaries and responsible for promoting estrus and the development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics. Testosterone

A steroid hormone that is the most potent naturally occurring androgen and that regulates the development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics. Intracellular signaling pathways Transmit the information to the part of the cell that needs to respond. Anabolic Steroids Steroid hormones that promote muscle growth. LDL Cholesterol The cholesterol in low-density lipoproteins; the 'bad' cholesterol. HDL Cholesterol The cholesterol in high-density lipoproteins; the 'good' cholesterol. Feedback loops Regulate hormone levels; the hormone at the end of the chain regulates the hormone at the beginning of the chain. Negative feedback loop When the output of a pathway inhibits inputs to the pathway. Gonadotropin (GnRH) A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that signals the anterior pituitary gland to begin secreting luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Progesterone A steroid hormone secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary and by the placenta, that acts to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum, to maintain pregnancy, and to promote development of the mammary glands. Hypothalamus The part of the brain that lies below the thalamus, forming the major portion of the ventral region of the diencephalon and functioning to regulate bodily temperature, certain metabolic processes, and other autonomic activities. Oxytocin A short polypeptide hormone released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, that stimulates the contraction of smooth muscle of the uterus during labor and facilitates ejection of milk from the breast during nursing. Gamete A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg.

Menstrual cycle The periodic series of changes in the female reproductive system associated with the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy; the cycle is repeated roughly every 28 days. During the menstrual cycle, an ovum is released from one of the ovaries (the release is called ovulation), and the uterus develops an inner lining enriched with blood to prepare it for the possible implantation of a zygote. If fertilization and implantation do not take place, the lining of the uterus is discharged during menstruation.

Depression 36 Depression A condition of general emotional dejection and withdrawal greater and more prolonged than that warranted by any objective reason. Synapse A synapse is a specialized region in the nervous system through which neurons send signals. Neuronal Signaling Neuronal Signaling occurs within the cells of the nervous system and involves the release of hormones into localized areas of the nervous system called synapses. Depolarization A chemical process by which a neural cell changes its electrical potential, usually negative to positive through ion exchange with the help of channels of chloride and sodium. This process is part of the synaptic transmission. Ca2 / Ca2+ Ca2+ = Calcium ions. Calcium ions are important for synaptic signal transmission in neurons. Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) MAOIs are a type of powerful antidepressant drugs that function by blocking the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) SSRIs are a type of antidepressant drug that extend the effect of serotonin by inhibiting the reabsorption of serotonin by neurons.