UET, Lahore City campus

Chemical Engineering Department

Submitted to: Miss Masooma Sundus Submitted by: Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

[THERMODYNAMICS-II]
Fuel Cell, Working, Types, Disadvantages, Advantages, Applications

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one negative, called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes. Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the electrodes. Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great appeal of fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollutionmuch of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water. One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct current (DC) electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the same.

How do fuel cells work?

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be directed outside the cell to do work, such as powering an electric motor or illuminating a light bulb or a city. Because of the way electricity behaves, this current returns to the fuel cell, completing an electrical circuit. The chemical reactions that produce this current are the key to how a fuel cell works. There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now ionized, and carry a positive electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called an inverter. Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types, it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions. The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical reaction. Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity. Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a conventional power plant. Therefore, fuel cells are more efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also be harnessed, boosting system efficiency still further. 2

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

Different types of fuel cells.

Alkali fuel cells
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They operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a solution of potassium hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70 percent, and operating temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees F). Cell output ranges from 300 watts (W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive. And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.

Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)

They use high-temperature compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is about 650 degrees C (1,200 degrees F). Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100 MW. The high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-catalysts are inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But the high temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCsthey would probably be too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to compensate.

Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC)

They use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to 200 degrees C (about 300 to 400 degrees F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to withstand the corrosive acid.

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells

They work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and operating temperature is about 80 degrees C (about 175 degrees F). Cell outputs generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to make them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.

Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

They use a hard, ceramic compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) oxides (chemically, O 2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60 percent, and operating temperatures are about 1,000 degrees C (about 1,800 degrees F). Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high temperatures a 3

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

reformer is not required to extract hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. However, the high temperature limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.

Advantages

Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines. Most fuel cells operate silently, compared to internal combustion engines. They are therefore ideally suited for use within buildings such as hospitals. Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; for hydrogen fuelled fuel cells, the only by-product at point of use is water. If the hydrogen used comes from the electrolysis of water driven by renewable energy, then using fuel cells eliminates greenhouse gases over the whole cycle. Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore eliminate economic dependence on oil producing countries, creating greater energy security for the user nation. Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there is water and a source of power, generation of fuel can be distributed and does not have to be grid-dependent. The use of stationary fuel cells to generate power at the point of use allows for a decentralised power grid that is potentially more stable. Low temperature fuel cells (PEM, DMFC) have low heat transmission which makes them ideal for military applications. Higher temperature fuel cells produce high-grade process heat along with electricity and are well suited to cogeneration applications (such as combined heat and power for residential use). Operating times are much longer than with batteries, since doubling the operating time needs only doubling the amount of fuel and not the doubling of the capacity of the unit itself. Unlike batteries, fuel cells have no "memory effect" when they are getting refuelled. The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since there are few moving parts in the system.

Disadvantages
Fuel cells might be the answer to our power problems, but first scientists will have to sort out a few major issues: 4

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

Cost
Chief among the problems associated with fuel cells is how expensive they are. Many of the component pieces of a fuel cell are costly. For PEMFC systems, proton exchange membranes, precious metal catalysts (usually platinum), gas diffusion layers, and bipolar plates make up 70 percent of a system's cost . In order to be competitively priced (compared to gasoline-powered vehicles), fuel cell systems must cost $35 per kilowatt. Currently, the projected high-volume production price is $73 per kilowatt . In particular, researchers must either decrease the amount of platinum needed to act as a catalyst or find an alternative.
Durability

Researchers must develop PEMFC membranes that are durable and can operate at temperatures greater than 100 degrees Celsius and still function at sub-zero ambient temperatures. A 100 degrees Celsius temperature target is required in order for a fuel cell to have a higher tolerance to impurities in fuel. Because you start and stop a car relatively frequently, it is important for the membrane to remain stable under cycling conditions. Currently membranes tend to degrade while fuel cells cycle on and off, particularly as operating temperatures rise.
Hydration

Because PEMFC membranes must by hydrated in order to transfer hydrogen protons, researches must find a way to develop fuel cell systems that can continue to operate in subzero temperatures, low humidity environments and high operating temperatures. At around 80 degrees Celsius, hydration is lost without a high-pressure hydration system. The SOFC has a related problem with durability. Solid oxide systems have issues with material corrosion. Seal integrity is also a major concern. The cost goal for SOFC?s is less restrictive than for PEMFC systems at $400 per kilowatt, but there are no obvious means of achieving that goal due to high material costs. SOFC durability suffers after the cell repeatedly heats up to operating temperature and then cools down to room temperature.
Delivery

Technical Plan for Fuel Cells states that the air compressor technologies currently available are not suitable for vehicle use, which makes designing hydrogen fuel delivery system problematic.
Infrastructure

In order for PEMFC vehicles to become a viable alternative for consumers, there must be a hydrogen generation and delivery infrastructure. This infrastructure might include pipelines, truck transport, fueling stations and hydrogen generation plants. The DOE hopes that development of a marketable vehicle model will drive the development of an infrastructure to support it.
Storage and Other Considerations

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

Three hundred miles is a conventional driving range (the distance you can drive in a car with a full tank of gas). In order to create a comparable result with a fuel cell vehicle, researchers must overcome hydrogen storage considerations, vehicle weight and volume, cost, and safety. While PEMFC systems have become lighter and smaller as improvements are made, they still are too large and heavy for use in standard vehicles. Note There are also safety concerns related to fuel cell use. Legislators will have to create new processes for first responders to follow when they must handle an incident involving a fuel cell vehicle or generator. Engineers will have to design safe, reliable hydrogen delivery systems.

Applications
Fuel Cell Today categorises the use of fuel cells into three broad areas: 1) Portable power generation, 2) Stationary power generation, and 3) Power for transportation. We also include a category for fuel and infrastructure, relating to the production, distribution, storage and dispensing of fuels for fuel cells, as this is crucial to implementing fuel cell technology.

Stationary
More than 2500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for onsite service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Fuel cell power generation systems in operation today achieve 40 percent fuelto-electricity efficiency utilizing hydrocarbon fuels. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and when the fuel cell is sited near the point of use, its waste heat can be captured for beneficial purposes (cogeneration). In large-scale building systems, these fuel cell cogeneration systems can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to 40% over conventional energy service and increase efficiency to 85 percent. Telecommunications With the use of computers, the Internet, and communication networks steadily increasing, there comes a need for more reliable power than is available on the current electrical grid, and fuel cells have proven to be up to 99.999% (five 6

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

nines) reliable. Fuel cells can replace batteries to provide power for 1kW to 5kW telecom sites without noise or emissions, and are durable, providing power in sites that are either hard to access or are subject to inclement weather. Such systems would be used to provide primary or backup power for telecom switch nodes, cell towers, and other electronic systems that would benefit from on-site, direct DC power supply. Landfills/Wastewater Treatment Plants/Breweries/WineriesFuel cells currently operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants across the country, proving themselves as a valid technology for reducing emissions and generating power from the methane gas they produce. They are also installed at several breweries and a winery- Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and Sapporo and Napa Wine Company. Untreated brewery effluent can undergo anaerobic digestion, which breaks down organic compounds to generate methane, a hydrogen rich fuel.

Transportation
Cars - All the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development or in testing right now and several have begun leasing and testing in larger quantities Buses - Over the last four years, more than 50 fuel cell buses have been demonstrated in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Fuel cells are highly efficient, so even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, fuel cell buses can reduce transit agencies CO2 emissions. And emissions are truly zero if the hydrogen is produced from renewable electricity, which greatly improves local air quality. Because the fuel cell system is so much quieter than a diesel engine, fuel cell buses significantly reduce noise pollution as well. Scooters - In spite of their small size, many scooters are pollution powerhouses. Gas-powered scooters, especially those with two-stroke engines, produce tailpipe emissions at a rate disproportionate to their small size. These two-stroke scooters produce almost as much particulate matter and significantly more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide as a heavy diesel truck. Fuel cell scooters running on hydrogen will eliminate emissions - in India and Asia where many of the population use them - this is a great application for fuel cells. Forklifts/Materials Handling - Besides reducing emissions, fuel cell forklifts have potential to effectively lower total logistics cost since they require minimal refilling and significantly less maintenance than electric forklifts, whose batteries must be periodically charged, refilled with water, and replaced. Due to the frequent starting and stopping during use, electric forklifts also experience numerous interruptions in current input and output - fuel cells ensure constant power delivery and performance, eliminating the reduction in voltage output that occurs as batteries discharge.

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) - Todays heavy-duty trucks are equipped with a large number of electrical appliancesfrom heaters and air conditioners to computers, televisions, stereos, even refrigerators and microwaves. To power these devices while the truck is parked, drivers often must idle the engine. The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated the annual fuel and maintenance costs of idling a heavy-duty truck at over $1,800 and that using fuel cell APUs in Class 8 trucks would save 670 million gallons of diesel fuel per year and 4.64 million tons of CO2 per year. Trains - Fuel cells are being developed for mining locomotives since they produce no emissions. An international consortium is developing the worlds largest fuel cell vehicle, a 109 metric-ton, 1 MW locomotive for military and commercial railway applications. Planes - Fuel cells are an attractive option for aviation since they produce zero or low emissions and make barely any noise. The military is especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. Companies like Boeing are heavily involved in developing a fuel cell plane. Boats - For each liter of fuel consumed, the average outboard motor produces 140 times the hydrocarbonss produced by the average modern car. Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiencies than combustion engines, and therefore offer better range and significantly reduced emissions. Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats.

Portable Power
Fuel cells can provide power where no electric grid is available, plus they are quiet, so using one instead of a loud, polluting generator at a campsite would not only save emissions, but it won't disturb nature, or your camping neighbors. Portable fuel cells are also being used in emergency backup power situations and military applications. They are much lighter than batteries and last a lot longer, especially imporant to soldiers carrying heavy equipment in the field.

Micro Power
Consumer Electronics- Fuel cells will change the telecommuting world, powering cellular phones, laptops and palm pilots hours longer than batteries. Companies have already demonstrated fuel cells that can power cell phones for 30 days with out recharging and laptops for 20 hours. Other applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video recorders, portable power tools, and low power remote devices such as hearing aids, smoke detectors, burglar alarms, hotel locks and meter readers. These miniature fuel cells generally run on methanol, an inexpensive wood alcohol also used in windshield wiper fluid.

Thermodynamics-II

Ali Ammar (2009-CH-246)

20/04/2012