1. Standard and non-standard varieties of English.

Standard English - Most widely accepted and understood among speakers, used in broadcasting, TV, news etc, spoken or written, among educated speakers. Learned as second or foreign language. It doesnt concern accent, but grammar (I aint got none, aint, double negative), vocabulary, includes formal and informal styles (I havent got a bloody..) Pronounc. is accent. Standard English is not a separate language, just a variety, not an accent. It is not a style, formal, neutral, informal. Standard E is not restricted to the speech of a particular group like RP accent, most users of StE have regional accents. It is the dialect (vocab+gr) of educated people. British English = Standard English written and spoken by educated speakers in England (as far as grammar and vocabulary are concerned). Also used in Wales, Scotland, N Ireland, S Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, S Africa (minor dif-s)

{Standard language - the norm, the optimum for educational purposes, spoken by the minority of the population (by educated speakers)
Language standards - rules that the language or the speakers should follow, established by linguists, all members of the society are required to follow these standards}

Pron: RP (received pronunciation) accent originates from SE of England, a social accent, associated only with England British Standard English grammar and vocabulary (used by many) together with the RP accent (used only in England) should be called English English. Other variety widely taught: North American E: English written and spoken by educated speakers in the USA and Canada. Now unis permit either EngEng or NAmEng- as long as they are consistent. From the point of view of the spoken lg: 1.Language change: accents, like all components of living lgs, change with time. 2.Stylistic variation: In addition: the pron of individual speakers varies: either due to external factors or un/conscious changes according to their perception of the situation to more in/formal. Formal: slow, careful articulation, full value of sounds. Informal: quick speech, less careful, sounds omitted. Vowel weakening: /are/. Assimilation: /that plate/. Elision: /expect so/. A more casual style of pron should not be considered incorrect. It is a matter of appropriateness, not correctness. 3.Unconditioned variation: within RP speakers there are differences that cannot be explained in terms of a change nor a speech style. 4.Regional variation: as we know, only a small percentage speak RP, others have regional accents. Even if we speak of Irish and Scottish etc accents they cannot be found within certain limits, there is a continuum, a gradual changing of pron. Urban vs rural accents: easier to say whether the person is from the city or the countryside. British attitudes: Urban: faster, more up-to-date, ugly, careless, unpleasant. Rural: slower, pleasant, old-fashioned, amusing RP

Social variation

Regional variation People at the bottom of the social scale speak with the most obvious , the broadest regional accents. RP speakers at the top, their speech gives no clue of their regional origin. Standard english variety: EngEng BrEnglish NamEnglish USEng CanEng Other standard: Australian English (AusEng) S-African English(SAfEng) NZEng Non-standard varieties (often called dialect) Stigmatised - marking as being bad, not good enough, regarded as socially lower than proper, inferior. AusEng was being considered as non-standard and bad English, lack of acceptance - race in US or UK class Preposition at the end of a sentence is not considered as norm (informal). English should follow Latin tradition. It is normal if people judge people by their accents but it might be offensive Standard language is not exclusive. If you lower the standard people dont accept it (nigger). Grammatical and lexical differences throughout the world in the English language are insignificant, most often the pronunciation is different, phonetical etc (native speakers). Deviations from the standard 1.Working class speech is different from standard English. 2.Multiple negation (I didnt do nothing) can be used in jokes, emphasising 3.Aint- negative form of the word be/have.

4.The word never is to refer to a single occasion in the past (Ive never done it-> I didnt do it) 5.Extensional 3rd person s to 1st and 2nd person forms 6.Regularisation of be- we was, you was, they was 7.Regularisation of some irregular verbs- I drawed, I have drawed 8.Optional ly on adverbs- he writes real quick 9.Unmarked plurality on amounts of measurement after numerals- 10 pound, 20 year 10.Different forms of irrelative pronouns- the man as lives here, the man what lives here 11.Regularisation of reflexive pronouns- myself, herself, hisself, theirselves (ige: themselves) 12.A distinction between main and auxiliary verb do- you done it, did you Main auxiliary 2. Spread of English. The Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, the Expanding Circle. English developed out of Germanic lgs during 5th and 6th cent-s Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Frisians By Medieval times (1100-1500) had replaced the original Celtic lg in nearly all of England; in southern and easten Scotland Until the 17th century spoken by few The original Celtic lg survived in the form of Welsh in Wales and as Cornish in Cornwall The Highlands and islands of western and northern Scotland spoke another Celtic lg- Gaelic brought from Ireland in premediaeval times The geographical and demographic expansion of English began in the late 1600s North America, Bermuda, the Bahamas, the Caribbean Also spread into northern areas of Ireland from Scotland During the 1700s into southern Ireland During 1800s into Wales, today only 20% are native Welsh speakers In Scotland English began to replace Gaelic, has ~70 000 native speakers The development of Southern hemisphere varieties began in early 1800s: colonization of Australia, later New Zealand, South Africa, other islands These patterns of expansion, settlement and colonization have had an effect on the relationships, similarities and differences between the varieties of English. These are most obvious at the level of pronunciation. Few differences in consonant systems, most at the level of vowel systems. Most distinctive varieties: Those of Scotland and northern Ireland: reflect ancient differences between northern and southern varieties of E Those of the Caribbean: reflect the influence of African lgs and the process of creoli.

3. British English: Dialects spoken on the British Isles. (Wikipedia) United Kingdom (British English) Black British English - British Black English (BBE) is a variety of the English language spoken by a large number of the Black British population of African Caribbean ancestry. The British Black dialect is heavily influenced by Jamaican English owing to the large number of British immigrants from Jamaicacitation needed, but it is also spoken by those of different ancestry. British Black speech is also heavily influenced by social class and the regional dialect (Cockney, Mancunian, Brummie, Scouse, etc.).

England (English language in England) - The accent of English English best known to people outside the United Kingdom is that of Received Pronunciation (RP), though it is used by only a small minority of speakers in England. Until recently, RP was widely considered to be more typical of educated speakers than other accents. It was referred to by some as the Queen's (or King's) English, or even "BBC English" (because for many years of broadcasting it was rare to hear any other accent on the BBC). Since the 1970s regional accents have become increasingly accepted in mainstream media, and are frequently heard on radio and television. RP is also sometimes called an "Oxford accent"; the Oxford English Dictionary gives RP pronunciations for each word, as do most other English dictionaries published in Britain. Northern In the far north, local speech is akin to Scots Cheshire - North-west Midlands English dialect which lies between the dialects of the surrounding counties of Lancashire, Staffordshire, Shropshire and Derbyshire. Cheshire dialect contains some words that are distinct from standard English, such as "shippen" for cattle-house. According to Leigh, most unique Cheshire words derive from Anglo-Saxon; "shippen" is from scypen. Other words derive from transposition, for example, "waps" for "wasp" and "neam" for "name". Cumbrian (Cumbria including Barrow-in-Furness) - local English dialect spoken in Cumbria in northern England. Barrow-inFurness (within the historic boundaries of Lancashire) has a similar accent to much of Lancashire whilst the northern parts of Cumbria have a more North-East English sound to them. Whilst clearly being an English accent approximately between Lancashire and Geordie it shares much vocabulary with Scots.
{aboot - About, ars - I am, as - I am (West Cumbria), Aye - Yes, how-ee - Come on, thew - you, you's - you (plural) / you are, yat - gate, us, es me, wherst - where is the, djarn - doing (as in 'whut yer djarn? - what are you doing?), divn't - don't (as in 'divn't do that, lad'), hoo'doo - How are you doing? (strain of 'How do?'), canna - can't (as in 'ye canna djur that!' - 'You can't do that!'), djur - do, frae - from, yon - that (when referring to a noun which is visible at the time), Reet - Right, Harreet - Alright? (Greeting), Be reet - It'll be alright, Nae - No,Yonder - there (as in 'ower yonder'), owt - anything (got owt? - got anything?),bevvie - drink (alcoholic), lyyk - like, noh - no}

Geordie (Tyneside) - spoken in North-East England. The dialect owes a lot to the Scandinavian languages. Many are shared with other Northern dialects, while others are individual and restricted to Geordie. Geordie has a large amount of vocabulary not heard elsewhere in England. In a newspaper survey, the Geordie accent was found to be the "most attractive in England".
Words still in common use by Geordie dialect speakers today include: Aa/Aye/Ai - "Yes", aboot - 'about', aall - all, Baccy - tobacco, D/dee - 'do', dinnor - dinner, haad - "hold" example: 'keep a haad' is 'keep a hold' and 'had yer gob' becomes 'keep quiet'. E.g. "ye cud hev keep a-hadden yor dog" hinny - a term of endearment - "Honey", hoy -"to throw", hoose - house, "Ma/Mar/Mam"- a variation of Mother, mesel - myself, nowt "nothing"

Lancastrian (Lancashire) Definite article reduction. The is shortened to t or glottalled. Rhoticity. In some words with RP //, a sound more like [] may be used, for example, "hole" is pronounced [hl] "hoil". In areas that border Yorkshire, it is more likely for there, where, swear, etc. to be pronounced with //, to rhyme with "here". Words that end -ight often are pronounced /i/. For example light, night, right are pronounced /lit/, /nit/, /rit/. Some areas pronounce fight and right with an /ei/ vowel. An oo in words such as book, look, hook can be pronounced with /u/. The third person feminine (she) appears to be rendered as "'er" (her). Amongst the younger generation, it is much more common to replace /t/ with a glottal stop []. Words such as cold and old are pronounced cowd and owd (e.g.: owd mon = old man) Certain words ending in -ool drop the l. School therefore becomes skoo" and fool becomes foo. Use of a /z/ sound for an /s/ as in bus /bz/ The word self is reduced to sen or sel Make and take normally become meck and teck. Frequent replacement of /a/ with /o/. For example, land became lond and man became mon. Mackem (Sunderland) - Make and take are pronounced mak and tak (*mak+ and *tak+). Many words ending in -own are pronounced [-un] (cf. Geordie: [-un]). School is split into two syllables, with a short [+ sound added after the oo, separating it from the l: *sk.l]. This is also the case for words ending in -uel or -ool, which are monosyllabic in some other dialects, such as cruel, fuel and fool which in Mackem are *krl+, *fjl+ and *fl+. This "extra syllable" occurs in other words spoken in a Mackem dialect, i.e. film is *flm+ and poorly *pli]. The word face, due to the inclusion of an extra [] and the contraction thereof, is often pronounced *fjas+. While *fjas+ and some other cases of this extra vowel have been observed in the Geordie dialect, school in that variant is *skjl+ versus Mackem's *sk.l+ (and *skl+ or *skl] in most other dialects). Wesh and weshing (for wash and washing) Dinnit (for do not or don't), as in "dinnit de that". Claes for clothes Wee or whee for who: as in "Wee said that like" (Who said that?) Whey or wey for why: "Whey nar!" ("Why no!") Tee or tae for to in some constructions: "Where yae gawn tee?" ("Where are you going to?") Wuh or wa for we: "Wuh knew wed lose 5-1" ("We knew we'd lose 5-1"). The dialect word haway or howay means come on Mancunian-Salfordian (Manchester & Salford) - over-enunciation of vowel sounds when compared to the flattened sounds of neighbouring areas. This is also noticeable with words ending in <er> such as tenner. Traditionally, the Manchester area was known for glottal reinforcement of the consonants /k/, /p/ and /t/. "having a buzz" - to have a good time, 'Scran' - food, 'Gaff' - residence, house or flat, "the dibble" - police. "madferit" (mad for it) - full of enthusiasm. Influences from Ireland include the pronunciation of the letter 'h' as 'haitch' and the plural of 'you' as 'youse'.

Northumbrian (rural Northumberland) - a dialect of the Old English language spoken in the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria. The Viking invasion forced the dialect to split in two. Pitmatic (Durham and Northumberland) - also colloquially known as "yakka", is a dialect of English used in the counties of Northumberland and Durham in England. The guttural r sound can still sometimes be detected, especially amongst elderly populations in
more rural areas.

Scouse (Liverpool) - is an accent and dialect of English found primarily in the Metropolitan county of Merseyside, and closely associated with the city of Liverpool and the adjoining urban areas. The Scouse accent is highly distinctive, and has little in common with those used in the neighbouring regions of Cheshire and Lancashire. Yorkshire (also known as Broad Yorkshire) (Spoken in Yorkshire).
The use of 'giz' instead of 'give us'. The use of the term 'made up' to portray the feeling of happiness or joy in something. For example, 'I'm made up I didn't go out last night'. The term 'sound' is used in many ways. It is used as a positive adjective such as 'it was sound' meaning it was good. It is used to answer questions of our wellbeing, such as 'I'm sound' in reply to 'How are you?' The term can also be used in negative circumstances to affirm a type of indifference such as 'I'm dumping you'. The reply 'sound' in this case translates to 'yeah fine', 'ok', 'I'm fine about it', 'no problem' etc. [k] pronounced as [x] at the ends of some words.

East Midlands Aya gorra weeya? - is the wife with you? (lit. "Have you got her with you?) It's black uvver ahh Bill's mother's - it looks like rain. (lit. "It's black over Bill's Mother's." q.v.) implying impending bad weather Thiz summat up wee im - I think he may be ill. (lit. "There's something up with him.") Yo norrayin no tuffees! - You aren't having any tuffees (sweets)! Badly - hungover/ill, belt-job - defunct coal-mining definition for an "easy" job such as sleeping whilst watching a conveyor belt, blubber - to cry/weep uncontrollably (i.e. "Stop your blubbing."), Clouts - trousers (usually pronounced claarts), croaker - doctor, croggie - an (illegal) crossbar ride, "two-up" on the crossbar of a man's bicycle, cob - a bread roll (bap),(as verb:) to throw, duck's necks - bottle of lemonade, fast stuck, caught (oh's gorrer finger fast), Island - Roundabout, jitty/jetty - alleyway, larup/larop - to cover with (usually a thick substance), mardy grumpy, sulky, mash - to make a pot of tea (i.e. "I'll go mash the tea.")nesh - a weak person, or one who feels the cold, oakie - ice cream, paste - to beat, piddle - falling liquid as rain or urine (i.e. "It's piddling down with rain" or "A dog's just piddled on the wall"), Piggle - to pick at a scab, spot or a skin irritation, puddled/puddle-drunk - intoxicated, puther - to pour out uncontrollably, pot - a plaster cast, rammel - rubbish/waste, scraight/scraitin' - to cry/crying, skank - Mean or unfair, Snap - lunch/food, snidered/snided/snied - covered/infested, sucker - iced lolly, twitchel - alleyway, tabs - ears tuffees - sweets, confectionery, wazzerk/wassock - fool, sket - a useless person. The greeting 'Now Then' (as 'Nah theen') used where other people might say "Hello". Replacing the word "of" with "on". "There were two on em'" (There were two of them). "Get hold on em'" (Get hold of them). West Midlands - People tend to substitute a reply of "arr" for "yes". Generally, most words are shortened, most commonly being "I haven't" to "I ay" (which can be argued as an even shorter form of "I ain't"). Black Country English - "Bath" rhymes with "math", not with "hearth";"cut" rhymes with "put";"singer" rhymes with "finger". However, the Black Country accent is non-rhotic, such that "draw" and "drawer" are homophones. "babby" for baby, "alf baerked" for stupid, "argy-bargy" for fight, and "bostin" to mean "very good". The word endings with 'en' are still noticeable in conversation as in 'gooen' for going, callen for calling. The vowel 'a' is pronounced as 'o' as in 'sond' for sand, 'hond' for hand, 'opple' for apple, 'sponner' for spanner, and 'mon' for man. Other pronunciations are 'winder' for window, 'fer' for far, and 'loff' for laugh. "'Ow B'ist", meaning "How are you?" is a greeting contracted from "How be-est thou?", with the typical answering being "'Bay too bah", meaning "I am not too bad" contracted from "I be not too bad". "I haven't seen her" becomes "I ay sid 'er". The local version of "you" is pronounced /ja/ YOW, rhyming with "now". The local pronunciation "goo" (elsewhere "go") or "gooin". It is quite common for broad Black Country speakers to say agooin where others say going.

Brummie (Birmingham) - It is not the only accent of the West Midlands, although the term, Brummie, is often, erroneously, used in referring to all accents of the region.
Babby - "baby", Bawlin, Bawl - To cry, Cob - A bread roll, Go and play up your own end - Said to children from a different street making a nuisance, Our Wench - Affectionate term, meaning 'sister' or sometimes used by a husband referring to his wife, Pop - a glass of fizzy drinks, Snap - Food, a meal, allegedly derived from the act of eating itself (example usage "I'm off to get my snap" equates to "I'm leaving to get my dinner"), Scrage - A scratched cut, where skin is sliced off. 'I fell over an badly scraged my knee', Suff - drain, as in "put it down the suff", Throw a wobbly - To become sulky or have a tantrum, Trap - To leave suddenly, or flee, Up the cut - Up the canal (not unique to Birmingham), Yampy - (often "dead yampy") - Mad, daft, barmy (also used is the word "Saft", as in "Yow big saft babbie") Potteries (north Staffordshire) - the vowel sound ow (as in low) which is used where standard English would use ol as in cowd = cold, 'towd" = told, etc. and the use of 'thee' and 'they' in place of you (both singular and plural). The use of the addition of 'ne' at the end of words to indicate the negative as in 'thee cosne goo dine theyr sirree, theyl get thesen ow bautered u'. "Nesh" meaning soft, tender, or to easily get cold is derived from the early English, nesc, nescenes. "Slat" meaning to throw, is from the old English slath, moved. "Fang" meaning catch or seize, as in "Fang 'owt of this" - "catch hold of this", is from Old English "fang, fangen". It is a cognate with the modern Swedish word "fnga" which means, "to catch". "Sheed" meaning to spill liquids, most likely derived from the word "shed" in the sense of getting rid of something. "Duck" a common term of affection towards both men and women as in "Tow rate owd duck?". "Are you all right dear?" Duck being derived from the Saxon word "ducas" as a term of respect, which by another route is where the word "Duke" arises from in English. Duck in this context may also relate to the Roman military honorific "Dux", meaning troop or tribal leader, but it is unclear if ducas pre-dates Dux or if they are etymologically related. "Spanwanned" (agricultural) meaning the state of being stuck astride a wall whilst attempting to climb over it.

Telford accent East Anglian - This easternmost area of England was probably home to the first-ever form of language which can be called English. East Anglian English has had a very considerable input into the formation of Standard English, and contributed importantly to the development of American English.

Norfolk dialect Yod-dropping is found after all consonants, so that 'few' sounds like 'foo' and 'music' sounds like 'moozic'. The accent is generally non-rhotic, as is RP/BBC, so /r/ is only pronounced when a vowel follows it. Unlike many regional accents of England, Norfolk does not usually exhibit H-dropping. The phoneme /h/ is generally pronounced in 'hat', 'ahead' by most, though not all, Norfolk speakers. Norfolk speech has a distinctive rhythm due to some stressed vowels being longer than their equivalents in RP/BBC and some unstressed vowels being much shorter. The distinction between // and //, often known as the Footstrut split[5] is maintained; the quality of // ('strut') is more back and close than that of RP/BBC diffus (difference), gret (great, big, or significant), loight (light), ollust (always), occard (awkward), shud (shed), troshin (originally 'threshing,' now working in general), warmint (varmint or vermin, troublesome person), zackly (exactly)

Suffolk dialect "boi" (with an emphasis on the 'i') - a term of familiar address, equivalent to mate, but can be used for a female as well as a male addressee. A corruption of "neighbour" "dag" = early morning or evening mist "bibble" = (of animals, esp. birds) to drink "hull" = throw "on the her" (pronounced 'h') = uneven, unbalanced Words like "film" become "filum". Yod-dropping is very common, so words like "dew", "queue", "new" and "tune" will become "doo", "koo", "noo" and "toone" respectively. Suffolk dialect is non-rhotic, i.e. the 'r' in "hard" and similar words is not pronounced Suffolk dialect has a strong use of the glottal stop. This is shown in words like "'amara" and "e'" ('tomorrow' and 'it'). The intonation of words in Suffolk is very peculiar. Words have a notable range of rise and fall in pitch and can often sound as if the speaker were asking a question. This is one of the main features that distinguish Suffolk speech from Norfolk, which is characterised by a distinctive 'drawl'. Verbs very rarely conjugate, the only exceptions being 'to be' and 'to have'. Other verbs do not conjugate whatsoever, and the present and perfect tense is often the same, and context is used. This is shown in "Ee say he goo down-a poost arfice" for "he said he went to the post office".

Southern Received Pronunciation (also known as Queen's English (or King's English) or BBC English) - the standard accent of Standard English in Great Britain, with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in other European languages between their standard varieties and their regional forms. RP is defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as "the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England", although some have argued that it can be heard from native speakers throughout England and Wales. Cockney (East End of London) - Geographically and culturally, it often refers to working-class Londoners, particularly those in the East End. Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and occasionally use rhyming slang. Cockney has been
occasionally described as replacing /r/ with /w/. For example, thwee (or fwee) instead of three, fwasty instead of frosty. Use of 'me' instead of 'my', for example, "At's me book you got 'ere". Cannot be used when "my" is emphasised (i.e., "At's my book you got 'ere" (and not "his")). Use of ain't. Use of double negatives, for example "I didn't see nuffink." Essex dialect - The diphthong of [a+. Right > Roight. The Shortening of certain elongated vowel sounds from *i+ to *] e.g. Been > Bin, Seen > Sin. Yod-dropping is common, as in the Norfolk and Suffolk dialects. Dropping of Ls e.g. Old > Owd. Frequently sounds are elided to allow the easy flow of speech; e.g., Wonderful > Wunnerful, Correctly > Creckly, St Osyth > Tozy

Estuary (Thames Estuary) - The term "Estuary English" can also be considered a milder (closer to RP) variety of the "London Accent". The spread of the London Accent extends many miles outside London and all of the neighbouring home counties surrounding London have residents who moved from London and took their London Accent with them. The London Accent or its Londonised milder variant, called Estuary English, can be heard in all of the New Towns, coastal resorts, and larger regional cities within 50 to 100 miles (80 to 160 km) of London in southern England. Kentish (Kent) - Alleycumfee - a non-existent place, Better-most - the best, something superior, Dabster, a dab hand - somebody very
skilled at something, Fanteeg - to be flustered, Ha'ant - "Haven't." For example, "Ha'ant yew sin 'im yet?", Jawsy - a chatterbox, March-men people from the borders of two counties, 'Od Rabbit It! - a blasphemous utterance, Ringle - to put a ring in a pig's nose, Scithers - scissors (clippers may have been "clithers."), Twinge - an earwig, Wrongtake - to misunderstand, Yarping - to complain, applied to children

Multicultural London English (Inner London) - colloquially called Jafaican. It is said to contain many elements from the languages of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago), South Asia (Indian subcontinent), and West Africa, as well as remnants of traditional Cockney. Although the street name, "Jafaican", implies that it is "fake" Jamaican, researchers indicate that it is not the language of white kids trying to "play cool" but rather that "[it is] more likely that young people have been growing up in London exposed to a mixture of second-language English and local London English and that this new variety has emerged from that mix". MLE is used mainly by young, urban working-class people.
The past tense of the verb "to be" is regularised, with "was" becoming universal for all conjugations, and "weren't" likewise for negative conjugations. This leaves "I was, you was, he was" etc., and "I weren't, you weren't, he weren't" etc. Tag-questions are limited to "isn't it", realised as "innit", and the corresponding "is it?".

Sussex - Gender is almost always feminine. There is a saying in Sussex dialect that "Everything in Sussex is a She except a Tom Cat and she's a He".
Dumbledore - bumble bee, Humbledore - hornet, God Almighty's cow - ladybird, Bread-and-cheese-friend - a true friend, Chipper - happy

West Country Anglo-Cornish - a dialect of English spoken in Cornwall by Cornish people. Dialectal English spoken in Cornwall is to some extent influenced by Cornish grammar, and often includes words derived from the Cornish language.

reversals (e.g. Her aunt brought she up), archaisms (e.g. give 'un to me - 'un is a descendant of Old English hine), the retention of thou and ye (thee and ye (ee)) - Why doesn't thee have a fringe?, double plurals - clothes-line postes, irregular use of the definite article - He died right in the Christmas, use of the definite article with proper names - Did 'ee knaw th'old Canon Harris?, the omission of prepositions - went chapel, the extra y suffix on the infinitive of verbs I ain't one to gardeny, but I do generally teal the garden every spring, they as a demonstrative adjective - they books, frequent use of the word up as an adverb - answering up, the use of some as an adverb of degree - She's some good maid to work. Bristolian dialect - known colloquially as Brizzle or Bristle. Bristol L (or Terminal L), in which an L sound is appended to words that end in a letter a. Additionally, -al is drawn out as -awl, and an l may be added within a word with an aw. Thus "area" becomes "areawl", "cereal" becomes "cereawl", "drawing" becomes "drawling" etc. This may lead to confusions between expressions like area engineer and aerial engineer which in "Bristle" sound identical. Other examples include 'Americawl' and 'Canadawl', and, when unsure, the answer 'I have no ideal'. In the same way, the Swedish Ikea is known by some as "Ikeawl", and Asda supermarket as "Asdawl". Another feature is the addition of S to verbs in the first and third person. Just as he goes, in Bristle I goes and they goes. As with other west country accents, H is often dropped from the start of words, th may become f, and -ing become -en. Bristolians often add a redundant "mind", "look" or "see" to the end of sentences: "I'm not doing that, mind." A redundant "like" may be placed in the middle of a sentence. Another Bristolian linguistic feature is the addition of a superfluous "to" in questions relating to direction or orientation. For example, "Wheres that?" would be phrased as "Wheres that to?" and "Wheres the park?" would become "Wheres the park to?".

Scotland Scottish English - 'outwith' meaning "outside of"; wee, the Scots word for small; bonnie for pretty, attractive; bairn for child, pinkie for
little finger and janitor for caretaker; cowp for tip or pour, fash for fuss. Kirk for church. It's your shot for "It's your turn". The use of "How?" meaning "Why?" is distinctive of Scottish, Northern English and Northern Irish English. "Why not?" is often rendered as "How no?". depute /dpjut/ for deputy, proven /provn/ for proved, interdict for injunction and sheriff substitute for acting sheriff. In Scottish education a short leet is a list of selected job applicants, and a remit is a detailed job description. Often, lexical differences between Scottish English and Southern Standard English are simply differences in the distribution of shared lexis, such as stay for "live" (as in: where do you stay?).

Highland English - the variety of Scottish English spoken by many in the Scottish Highlands and the Hebrides. It is more strongly influenced by Gaelic than other forms of Scottish English.
Voiceless stops /p/ /t/ /k/ are realised with preaspiration, that is as [hp], [ht] and [hk] or [xk], whereas voiced consonants tend to be de-voiced. Examples; that "whatever" becomes pronounced as "whateffer" and the English "j" as in "just" sound is often turned into a "tch" sound e.g. "chust". English /z/ may be realised as [s], giving "chisas" ("Jesus"). Some speakers insert a "sh" sound in English "rst" clusters, so that Eng. "first" gives "firsht". Lack of tolerance of English [w] may mean its realisation as [u], as in [suansi] ("Swansea"). Similarly, the svarabhakti ("helping vowel") that is used in some consonant combinations in Gaelic and Scots is sometimes used, so that "film" may pronounced "fillum". Deoch-an-dorus (various spellings), meaning a "drink at the door". Translated as "one for the road", i.e. "one more drink before you leave".

Glaswegian - The Glasgow Patter is a dialect spoken in and around Glasgow, Scotland. The Patter is used widely in everyday speech in Glasgow, and even occasionally in broadcasting and print. It is constantly evolving and being updated with new euphemisms as well as nicknames for well-known local figures and buildings. Doric (Aberdeen) - Mid Northern Scots or Northeast Scots, refers to the dialects of Scots spoken in the northeast of Scotland.
In Buchan the cluster cht, also ght, may be realised // in a few words, rather than /xt/ as in other dialects, for example: dochter (daughter), micht (might) and nocht (nought), often written dother, mith and noth in dialect writing. The clusters gn and kn are realised /n/ and /kn/, for example gnaw, gnap, knee, knife, knock (a clock) and knowe (knoll). In Buchan, towards the coast, th followed by er may be realised /d/, rather than // as in other dialects, for example: brither (brother), faither (father), gaither (gather) and mither (mother), often written bridder, fadder, gaider~gedder and midder in dialect writing. dinna be coorse or A'll skelp yer dowp - Don't be naughty or I will smack your bottom, gie's a bosie! - "Give me a hug!" gulsochs - sweets, cream cakes, doughnuts, caramels etc. louns an quines (louns an queans) - Lads and lassies, boys and girls.

Wales Welsh English - dialects are significantly influenced by Welsh grammar and often include words derived from Welsh. In South
Wales the word "where" may often be expanded to "where to", as in the question, "Where to is your Mam?". The word "butty" is used to mean "friend" or "mate". Cardiff - Its pitch is described as somewhat lower than that of received pronunciation, whereas its intonation is closer to dialects of England. A common feature of the Cardiff accent is, in colloquial language, the tendency to use a 3rd person singular verb conjugation when referring to the 1st/2nd person singular or plural. For example, I lives in Cardiff rather than I live in Cardiff. When asking the whereabouts of something, a Cardiffian may ask 'Where's that to?'. Double negatives

Northern Ireland Mid Ulster English - Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (t) and the second person plural (sibh), like English used to
have. Ulster English mirrors Irish in that the singular "you" is distinguished from the plural "you". This is normally done by using the words yous, yousuns or yis. For example: "Are yous not finished yet?" "Did yousuns all go to see it?" " What are yis up to?" Irish lacks words that directly translate as "yes" or "no", and instead repeats the verb in a question (positively or negatively) to answer. As such, Northern and Southern Hiberno-English use "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects. For example: "Are you coming home soon?" "I am" "Is your computer working?" "It's not" The absence of the verb "have" in Irish has influenced some grammar. The concept of "have" is expressed in Irish by the construction ag ("at") m ("me") to create agam ("at me"). Hence, Ulster English speakers sometimes use the verb "have" followed by "with me/on me". For example:

"Do you have the book with you?" "Have you money for the bus on you?" feck - a mild form of fuck, feg - cigarette, fella - man, hooley - party, Belfast - Two major realizations of /e/ are to be encountered: in open syllables a long monophthong near [+, but in closed syllables an ingliding diphthong, perhaps most typically [e], but ranging from [] to [i]. Thus days [dz+ and daze *dez] are not homophonous. Derry - There is a higher incidence of palatalisation after /k/ and its voiced equivalent //(e.g. /k/ "kyar" for "car")

Ulster Scots South Ulster English Ireland Hiberno-English - the dialect of English written and spoken in Ireland (Hibernia is the Latin name of the island).
"Do you have the book?" "I have it with me." "Have you change for the bus on you?" "He will not shut up if he has drink taken." "He does be working every day." "They do be talking on their mobiles a lot." "He does be doing a lot of work at school." "It's him I do be thinking of." "Did ye all go to see it?" "None of youse have a clue!" "Are ye not finished yet?" "Yis are after destroying it!"

Dublin Cork - Patterns of tone and intonation often rise and fall, with the overall tone tending to be more high-pitched than the standard Irish accent. English spoken in Cork has a large number of dialect words that are peculiar to the city and environs. Unlike standard Hiberno-English, some of these words originate from the Irish language, but others through other languages Cork's inhabitants encountered at home and abroad. Kerry and Cork County Connacht Sligo Town Galway City Rural Munster (Tipperary, Limerick County, Clare, Waterford) Limerick City North Leinster (Louth and Meath) South Leinster (Kilkenny, Laois, Longford, Offaly, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow) Isle of Man Manx English - the historic dialect of English spoken on the Isle of Man, though today in decline. It has many borrowings from the original Manx language, a Goidelic language, and it differs widely from any other English, including other Celtic-derived dialects such as Welsh English and Hiberno-English. Channel Islands - There's ten years I am a farmer for I've been a farmer for ten years".
Me, I don't want to go or I don't want to go, me. That's the one, eh? Eh for isn't it?, aren't they?, don't you think?, or else. There's two castles there for There are two castles there. ... and the teacher, she was angry, eh. (use of emphatic personal pronoun.) Guernsey English - The dialect contains terms such as "buncho" (from Dgrnsiais: bond d'tchu) for the English "somersault"; "it picks" instead of "it stings", from the Guernsey equivalent of the French "il pique"; "chirry" for "goodbye"; and "Budlo Night" instead of Bonfire Night on November 5th. Guernsey people will also say "Is it?" in answer to almost any statement, just as the French say "n'est-ce pas?", but also use it as a stand alone phrase. For example: "She was out until midnight last night!" "Is it?" Jersey English - The accent is similar sounding to Dutch or Afrikaans accents.

Malta Maltenglish - Minglish, Maltese English, Mixed Maltese English, or Maltinglirefers to the phenomenon of code-switching between Maltese and English. 4. English English, RP, Estuary English. English English - the English language as spoken in England. These forms of English are a subsection of British English, as spoken throughout the United Kingdom. British Standard English grammar and vocabulary (used by many) together with the RP accent (used only in England) should be called English English. RP - the accent which is normally taught to students who are studying EngEng. Originated in the south-east of England. Used natively by only 3-5% of the population of England. RP has a large number of diphthongs and not a particularly close relationship to English orthography. Types of RP - Mainstream or the unmarked version. Elite version, posh English or the marked one (linguistics: having an extra or less usual distinctive linguistic feature). Also divided into: conservative, general and advanced RP accent. RP vowels // bid, very, mirror, wanted, horses, honest // bed, merry // bad, marry // pot, long, cough, horrid

// putt, hurry // put /i:/ bee /ei/ bay /ai/ buy /i/ boy /u:/ boot /ou/ boat /u/ bout // peer, idea // pair, Mary // poor // pore /:/ paw, port, talk, boring /:/ bard, path, dance, balf, banana, father, calm /:/ bird, furry // about, sofa, butter /ai/ fire /u/ tower There is a variation between conservative (older) and advanced (younger) RP. Paw pore poor Older speakers /:/ // // Middle-ages speakers /:/ /:/ // Younger speakers /:/ /:/ /:/ RP consonants 1. /l/. Syllable-initial /l/ as in 'lot' is clearm i.e. pronounced with the body of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, giving a front vowel resonance, while syllable-final /l/ as in 'hill' and syllabic /l/ as in bottle are dark or velarized, i.e. pronounced with the body of the tongue raised towards the soft palate, giving a back-vowel resonance. 2. //. Contrast between /w/:/ / 3. *+. In many varieties of English in the British Isles, the consonant /t/ may be realized as a glottal stop *+, except at the beginning of a stressed syllable. Bitter [bt] / [b] Fit [ft] / [f] In RP the glottal stop can appear only: 1. As a realization of syllable-final /t/ before a following consonant, as in: Fit them [fm] / [fm] Batman [bmn] / [bmn+ In RP /t/ is not realized as *+ between two vowels in environments such as 'bitter' or 'fit us'. 2. *+ occurs before /t/ and in certain consonant clusters, as in 'church' [t:t], [bks], simply [smpl], where it is known as glottal reinforcement or glottalization. 4. /r/. Some English accents are 'rhotic' or 'r-ful' and others are 'non-rhotic' or 'r-less'. Rhotic accents are those which actually pronounce /r/, corresponding to orthographic 'r' in words like 'far' and 'farm': /f:r/, /f:rm/. The consonant 'r' in these positions - word-finally before a pause, or before a consonant - is known as 'non-prevocalic /r/'. Non-rhotic accents do not have /r/ in these positions and have, for example, farm as /f:m/. RP is a non-rhotic accent. Today most RP speakers have intrusive /r/ after //, as in 'China and', and after //, as in 'idea of'. Many RP speakers try to avoid it because it does not correspond to an 'r' in the spelling. Estuary English - a dialect of English widely spoken in South East England, especially along the River Thames and its estuary. Standard English spoken with the accent of the southeast of England". The term "Estuary English" can also be considered a milder (closer to RP) variety of the "London Accent". The spread of the London Accent extends many miles outside London and all of the neighbouring home counties surrounding London have residents who moved from London and took their London Accent with them. The London Accent or its Londonised milder variant, called Estuary English, can be heard in all of the New Towns, coastal resorts, and larger regional cities within 50 to 100 miles (80 to 160 km) of London in southern England. Estuary English is widely encountered throughout the south and south-east of England, particularly among the young. Many consider it to be a working-class accent, though it is by no means limited to the working class. Conversely, Estuary English and the stronger London Accent are also seen in negative terms as unfriendly and portraying an unsympathetic urban manner. Non-rhoticity. Use of intrusive R: pronouncing an "r" sound when no r is present to prevent consecutive vowel sounds. A broad A () in words such as bath, grass, laugh, etc. T glottalization: realising non-initial, most commonly final, /t/ as a glottal stop instead of an alveolar stop, e.g. can't (pronounced /kn/). Yod-coalescence, i.e., the use of the affricates [d] and [t] instead of the clusters [dj] and [tj] in words like dune and Tuesday. Thus, these words sound like June and choose day, respectively. L-vocalization, i.e., the use of [o], [], or [] where RP uses [] in the final positions or in a final consonant cluster, for example whole (pronounced /ho/). The whollyholy split. Use of confrontational question tags. For example, "It is absurd. Isn't it?" "I said that, didn't I?"

5. Cockney, Cockney Rhyming Slang. Very distinctive accent, intentionally made, cryptical, deliberate used in a sense of community, used by traders, in the market place, to produce collusion, used by criminals to confuse the police. Rhyming slang - for amusement and secret communication, Cockney, it's a creation of binary expression that rhymes with a single everyday word. apples and pears - stairs bowl of water daughter bawl of chalk walk Bristol cities - titties buckle my shoe - yew rabbit and pork to talk trouble and strife wife you and me tea butchers hook to look frog and toad road cobbler's awls balls, crap and nonsense three penny [threepni] bits tits Chelsea blue yew take a butchers at these pistols take a look at these breasts britneys beers I havent a scooby clue = Scooby doo Later on the rhyming word drops out, let's take a butcher's (hook) at those Bristols = let's take a look at those titties. 6. Welsh English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). Welsh Standard English cannot be said to be particularly different from EngEng. Principal phonological differences between WEng and RP: 1. 'last', 'dance' etc. tend to have // rather than /:/ for most WEng speakers, although /:/ is found for many speakers in some words. 2. Unstressed orthographic 'a' tends to be // rather than //, e.g. 'sofa' [so:fa]. 3. Unstressed orthographic 'o' tends to be // rather than //, e.g. 'condemn' /kndm/. 4. There is no contrast between // and //: 'rubber' /rb/. WEng vowels // [] bid // [] bed // [a] bad, pass, above, sofa // [] pot, object // [] putt, famous, rubber // [] put /i:/ [i:] bee /ei/ [e:] bake /ai/ [] buy /i/ [] boy /u:/ [u:] boot /ou/ [o:] boat, board /u/ *+ bout // [:] pair /:/ [:] sort, paw /:/ [a:] bard, calm /:/ [] bird /i/ *e] bait /u/ *o] blow 5. There is, in many varieties, an additional contrast, between /ei/ and /i/: Made /meid/ [me:d] Maid /mid/ *med] Words with /i/ are typically those spelt with 'ai' or 'ay'. 6. There is, in many varieties, an additional contrast between /ou/ and /u/: Nose /nouz/ [no:z] Knows /nuz/ *noz] 7. Many words which have /:/ in RP have the vowel /ou/ = [o:] in many WEng varieties. Thus: RP WEng So *su+ [so:] Soar [s:] [so:] Note, however, that 'port', 'paw' still have /:/ in WEng.

8. The vowels //, // do not occur in many varieties of WEng. 'Fear' /fi:j/, 'poor' is /pu:w/. Similarly, 'fire' is /faij/. 9. Words such as 'tune', 'music' have /tn/, /mzk/ rather than /tju:n/, /mju:zk/. WEng consonants 1. Educated WEng is not rhotic with a few exceptions. Intrusive and linking /r/ do occur; and /r/ is often flapped []. 2. Voiceless plosives tend to be strongly aspirated, and in word-final position are generally released and without glottalization, e.g. 'pit' *p t +. 3. /l/ is clear [l] in all positions. 4. There is a strong tendency for intervocalic consonants to be lengthened before unstressed syllables: Butter [bt :] Money [mn:i] 5. The Welsh consonants [] and /x/ occur in place-names and loan-words from Welsh. // is a voiceless, lateral fricative, and /x/ is a voiceless velar fricative as in Scots 'loch' or German 'acht', e.g.: Llanberis /anbrs/ Bach /b:x/ (term of endearment) Non-systemic pronunciation differences 1. For some WEng speakers, /g/ is absent in the following two words: WEng RP Language /lwd/ /lgwd/ Longer /l/ /lg/ 2. For some WEng speakers, // occurs in both of the following words: WEng RP Comb /km/ /koum/ Tooth /t/ /tu:/ WEng grammar The following features can be observed in the speec of even some educated WEng speakers but are not usually encountered in written Welsh English: 1. The use of the universal tag question 'isn't it?', invariable for main clause person, tense or auxiliary: You're going now, isn't it? They do a lot of work, isn't it? 2. The use of 'will' for 'will be': Is he ready? No, but he will in a minute. 3. The use of predicate object inversion for emphasis: WEng Coming home tomorrow he is EngEng He's coming home tomorrow/It's tomorrow he's coming home 4. The use of negative 'too': WEng I can't do that, too EngEng I can't do that, either 5. The use of adjective and adverb reduplication for emphasis: WEng It was high, high EngEng It was very high WEng lexis Surprisingly few Welsh loan-words are used in standard WEng. Common words include: Del /dl/ a term of endearment Eisteddfod /aistvd/ a competitive arts festival Llymru /mri:/ porridge dish Different WEng usages of English words found in some parts of Wales include: Delight 'interest' Rise 'get, buy' Tidy 'good, nice' Most vocabulary differences are at the level of non-standard or colloquial usage. 7. Scottish English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). ScotEng vowels /i/ bee, peer /e/ bay, pair // bed, merry, fern // bid, bird, wanted // hurry, fur, sofa /a/ bad, marry, bard, path, father, calm /u/ put, boot, poor /o/ boat // long, cough, fork, paw /ai/ buy /au/ bout

/i/ boy There are fewer vowels. 1. ScotEng is rhotic. Therefore, the RP vowels //, //, // and /:/, which arose in RP as a result of the loss of non-prevocalic /r/, do not occur in ScotEng, and words such as 'sawed' and 'soared' are distinct. Furthermore, it is a particular characteristic of ScotEng that even short vowels remain distinct before /r/. As a consequence of this, the following pars are distinguished only by the presence or absence of /r/: Bee /bi/ beer /bir/ Bay /be/ bear /ber/ Fen /fn/ fern /frn/ Bid /bd/ bird /bird/ Hut /ht/ hurt /hrt/ Bad /bad/ bard /bard/ Moo /mu/ moor /mur/ Row /ro/ roar /ror/ Pock /pk/ pork /prk/ 2. The RP distinction between // and /:/ does not exist in most ScotEng varieties. We write /a/ for the vowel of 'bad', 'bard', 'calm', etc. Note that 'Pam' and 'palm' are therefore homonyms - /pam/. However, some middle-class speakers do have this distinction, probably as a result of the influence of RP. 3. The RP distinction between // and /u:/ does not exist in most types of ScotEng. 'Pool' and 'pull' are homonyms - /pul/. 4. There is no RP-type distinction between // and /:/. We write // for both 'cot' and 'caught'. 5. Phonetically, the ScotEng vowels are monophthongs (with the exceptions of /ai/ = [] ~ []; /au/ = [u]; and /i/. Both // and // are central vowels, and /u/ = [u]. 6. All vowels in ScotEng are of approximately the same length, so that // often sounds longer than in EngEng, while /i/ sounds shorter than EngEng /i:/. However, there is a complication in that all the vowels of ScotEng, except // and //, are subject to the Scottish Vowel Length Rule. This rule has the effect that vowels are longer before /v/, //, /z/, /r/ and word-finally than they are elsewhere. Thus the /i/ in 'leave' is longer than the /i/ in 'lead', and the /e/ in 'pair' is longer than the /e/ in 'pale'. Word-final vowels remain long even if a suffix is added. There is thus a distinction of length in ScotEng between the vowels of pairs such as the following: Short Long Greed Agreed Wade Weighed Fraud Flawed Toad Towed Mood Mooed Tide Tied Loud Allowed 7. In words such as serenity, obscenity, the second syllable is often pronounced with /i/, as it is in 'serene', 'obscene', rather than with // as in RP. ScotEng pronunciation: consonants 1. ScotEng consistently and naturally preserves a distinction between // and /w/: 'which' / /, witch /w / 2. Initial /p/, /t/, /k/ are often unaspirated in ScotEng. 3. The consonant /r/ is most usually a flap [], as in 'fern' [fn]. 4. The glottal stop [] is a frequent realization of non-initial /t/. 5. /l/ may be fark in all positions. 6. The velar fricative /x/ occurs in a number of specifically ScotEng words, e.g. 'loch' [lx] lake; dreich [drix] dull. In Scots dialects /x/ occurs in many other words. Non-systematic differences between ScotEng and EngEng pronunciation ScotEng RP Length /len/ /l/ Raspberry /rasbr/ /r:zbr/ Realize /rliz/ /rilaiz/ Though /o/ /ou/ Tortoise /trtiz/ /t:ts/ With /w/ /w/ ScotEng grammar Most found at the level of informal speech. 1. The full verb 'have' behaves more like an auxiliary in Scot Eng than in EngEng, i.e. in both the present and past tense it can contract and does not require do-suppord for yes-no questions or negation: He'd a good time last night Had you a good time last night? 2. 'Will' has replaced 'shall' in most contexts. Will I put out the light?

3. There is a tendency not to contract the negative element 'not' in ScotEng, especially in yes-no questions. If an auxiliary is present in a negated sentence, the auxiliary usually contracts. Is he not going? Did you not see it? He'll not go You've not seen it 4. In sentences like the following, 'need' is a full verb with a verbal complement, rather than a modal, as in EngEng. ScotEng I don't need to do that EngEng I needn't do that Need can occur with a passive participle as its object, whereas most other varieties of English require the passive infinitive or present participle: My hair needs washed 5. 'Want' and 'need' can have a directional adverb as object He wants/needs out 6. Certain stative verbs, especially 'want' and 'need', can be used in the progressive aspect: I'm needing a cup of tea. 7. 'Yes' can occur with non-perfective forms of the verb Did you buy one yet? He is here yet 8. The adverbial particle in compound verbs remains directly after the verb. ScotEng EngEng He turned out the light He turned the light out They took off their coats They took their coats off ScotEng vocabulary and idioms Ashet serving dish Aye yes Brae incline, hill Bramble blackberry Burn stream Carry-out take-away Dram drink Dreich dull Folk people Haar sea mist Infirmary hospital To jag to prick, jab Janitor caretaker Loch lake To mind to remember Outwith outside Pinkie little finger Provost mayor Rone drainpipe Rowan mountain ash To shoogle to wobble, shake To sort to mend To stay to live, reside Through across Wee small 8. Irish English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). NIrEng The English of the north of Ireland has its roots in Scotland. - The vowel /e/ of 'bay' may be diphthonized to [ei]. However, it is often [], and pre-consonantally it may be a diphthong of the type [] ~ [i], e.g. 'gate' [git]. - // and /:/ may contrast, but only before /p/, /t/, /k/. Thus, unlike ScotEng, 'cot' and 'caught' are distinct, but like ScotEng, 'awful' and 'offal' are homophonous. - /u/ is often rather different from its ScotEng counterpart. In NIrEng the vowel of 'house' may range from *u], [u], [u] to [] and even [i]. Middle-class NIrEng can have [u] or even [u]. - /r/ is usually not a flap but a frictionless continuant. Words such as 'bird', 'card' are pronounced very much as in NAmEng. - In most NIrEng-speaking areas, /l/ is clear [l]. - Intervocalic /t/ is not infrequently a voiced flap [], cf. NAmEng. The intonation of certain types of NIrEng is also very distinctive and resembles that of south-western Scotland. English RP exerts a certain influence on the speech of middle-class Northern Irish speakers.

Most of the grammatical and lexical features of NIrEng which differentiate it from EngEng are also found in ScotEng and/or SIrEng. A distinctively NIrEng grammatical feature, however, is the use of 'whenever' to refer to a single occasion, as in 'Whenever my baby was born, I became depressed' (When my baby was born...). North-Western varieties of NIrEng also have positive 'anymore' as in USEng. Where NIrEng lexis differs from EngEng, it is usually the same as ScotEng or SIrEng. Of the vocabulary items in ScotEng, the following are also found in NIrEng: 'aye', 'brae, 'burn', 'carry-out', 'folk', 'jag', 'janitor', 'pinkie', 'shoogle', 'wee'. The word 'loch' also occurs in NIrEng but is spelled 'lough'. Of the vocabulary items in SIrEng, 'bold', 'cog' and 'depth' can also be found in NIrEng. Other lexical items not found in EngEng include: NIrEng EngEng 'to boke' to vomit 'to gunder' to shout 'to hoke' to poke around, to dig into, to rummage 'to skite' to slap, to splash 'to wither' to hesitate 'throughother' untidy, messy These words are also known in parts of Scotland. In NIrEng, 'bring' and 'take' can be used differently than in EngEng, e.g.: NIrEng You bring the children to school, and I'll take them home. EngEng You take the children to school, and I'll bring them home. Of the Scottish idioms and phrases, the following are also used in NIrEng: 'I doubt he's not coming, I've got the cold', That's me away, I'll get you home, to go the messages'. Other NIrEng idioms include: NIrEng EngEng He gets doing it He is allowed to do it It would take you to You have to be there early be there early I'm not at myself I'm not feeling very well You're well mended You're looking better (after an illness) SIrEng The RP vowels /:/, //, //, // do not occur, since SIrEng is rhotic. Note the rounded vowel [-] for //. Variable pronunciation differences: 1. Words such as 'path', 'dance' may often have // rather than /:/. 2. Words such as 'hoarse', 'mourning' may be pronounced with /:/ (same as 'horse', 'morning'), rather than with /ou/. 3. Words such as 'nurse' may be /nrs/ rather than /nrs/. 4. In some types of Dublin speech, words such as 'pair' may be /pr/ rather than /peir/. 5. Words like 'book', 'cook', 'rook' may have a /u:/ rather than //. 6. 'Many', 'any' etc. may be pronounced /mni:/ rather than /mni:/. 7. Some words which have // in RP may have /:/. These words include 'dog', 'doll', 'cross', 'lost', 'often', 'wrong'. At the level of uneducated speech the following pronunciations, which may also appear in the informal speech of educated speakers, can be found: 1. 'tea', 'please', etc. with /ei/ rather than /i:/: e.g. 'tea' *t e:+. This can also be heard in NIrEng. 2. 'old', 'cold', 'bold', etc. with /u/ rather than /ou/ e.g. 'old' *uld]. This feature is also found in NIrEng. 3. A tendency to neutralize the oppsoition /ai/-/i/ in favour of /ai/ e.g. 'oil' /ail/. SIrEng vowels // [] bid // [] bed // [a] bad // [+ pot // [-] putt, nurse // [] put /i:/ [i:] bee, peer, very /ei/ [e:] bay, pair /ai/ [] buy /i/ [] boy /u:/ [u:] boot, tour /ou/ [o:] boat, horse /u/ *u] bout /:/ [a:] path, calm, bard /:/ [:+ paw, talk, port // [] sofa, wanted, horses SIrEng pronunciation: consonants 1. SIrEng is rhotic. The /r/ is normally a retroflex approximant, as in NAmEng and NIrEng. 2. The contrast between // and /w/n is preserved: 'which' /t/, 'witch' /wt/. 3. /l/ is clear [l] in all positions.

4. Final voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ are released, aspirated, and without glottalization. In the speech of Dublin, there may also be considerable affrication in final position: e.g. 'back' *bakx+, 'top' *t p+. 5. The influence of Irish phonetics and phonology manifests itself in the treatment of the contrasts /t/-// and /d/-//. In many varieties the contrast is not preserved, with the dentals // and // being used throughout. In other varieties, the contrast may be preserved in ways other than that employed by RP. For example: tin thin RP *t + *+ SIrEng [ ] [ + Or *t + [ + Or [ + *+ Or *+ [+ (The clusters /tr/ and /dr/ are realized as [] and [] by nearly all SIrEng speakers: e.g. 'drop' [p +. This is true also of speakers of NIrEng). Distinctively SIrEng stress placement is found in a few words: SIrEng EngEng discpline dscipline architcture rchitecture SIrEng grammar There are a number of grammatical differences between SIrEng and EngEng. Most of the typically SIrEng forms are found only in speech, particularly in colloquial styles. They include: 1. The auxiliary 'shall' is relatively rare, as in ScotEng, NIrEng and NAmEng. Instead, 'will' is generally used. 2. Progressive verb forms are more frequent and a subject to fewer restrictions than in other varieties of English. For example, they can occur with many stative verbs: I'm seeing it very well. This is belonging to me. 3. The simple past tense is used when the sequence of tenses would require the past perfect in other English varieties: SIrEng If he saw her, he would not have done it Other Eng If he had seen her, he would not have done it. 4. An aspectual distinction between habitual and non-habitual actions or states is signalled by placing 'do', inflected for tense and person, before the habitual verb: Habitual Non-habitual (on a single occasion) I do be drunk I am drunk (I am habitually drunk) (I am drunk now) He does be writing He is writing 5. A calque (loan-translation) from Irish involves the use of the adverb 'after' with a progressive where a perfective would be used in other varieties: SIrEng I'm after seeing him Other Eng I have just seen him The perfect is also avoided in other contexts: SIrEng EngEng How long are you? How long have you been here? Did you have your dinner yet? Have you had your dinner yet? (cf. NAmEng, ScotEng) This feature of perfect-avoidance is also typical to NIrEng. 6. 'Let' can be used with second person imperatives: 'let you stay here' - 'Stay here' 7. Clefting is frequently used and is extended to use with copular verbs, which is not possible in other varieties: It was very ill that he looked Is it stupid you are? 8. Indirect questions may retain question-inversion and lack a subordinator (if/whether): SIrEng I wonder has he come Other Eng I wonder if he has come? This also occurs in NIrEng. 9. 'Yes' and 'no' tend to be used less frequently than in other varieties. Instead, ellipted verb phrases are used, as in Irish, e.g.: Are you going? I am Is it time? It is Did he come? He did not 10. The conjunction 'and' can be used to connect simultaneous events in all English varieties, as in 'John sang and Mary played the piano'. In SIrEng it can additionally be used to connect a finite clause with a non-finite clause, and is perhaps best 'translated' into other varieties as 'when, as, while': SIrEng It only struck me and you going out of the door EngEng It only struck me when you were going out of the door

SIrEng lexis SIrEng vocabulary in most cases follows EngEng rather than NAmEng usage. In those respects which it differs from EngEng, it often resembles ScotEng. In some cases lexical forms not found in other varieties are due to borrowing from Irish, while in other cases they may be due to preservation of archaic forms. Distinctively SIrEng usages include the following: SIrEng EngEng Bold naughty To cog to cheat Delph crockery Evening afternoon and evening Foostering fuss Yoke gadget, thing Note also the distinctively SIrEng directional terms: Back = westwards, in the West Below = northwards, in the North Over = eastwards, in the East Up above = southwards, in the South 9. US English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). // bid, mirror, wanted // bed, merry // bad, marry, path, dance, half, banana // pot, bard, father, calm, horrid // putt, hurry // put /i/ bee, very, peer /ei/ bay, pair, Mary /ai/ buy, fire, night, ride /i/ boy /u/ boot, tour /ou/ boat /u/ bout, loud, tower // paw, port, talk, boring, long, pore // about, sofa, bird, furry, butter 1. NAmEng has /i/ rather than /r/ in 'very' 2. The three RP vowels //, //, /:/ correspond to only two vowels in NAmEng - // and //. This, combined with the phonetic difference between RP // and USEng /a/ and a difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words, makes for a complicated set of correspondences. When this is further combined with a different distribution in word sets of the vowels // and // (NAm): // and /:/ (RP) and the rhotic/non-rhotic difference, the picture becomes even more complex: RP USEng Bad Datsun Bogota ou Pot Cough Long Paw : Port : r Bard : r Path : Dance : Half : Banana : Father : 1. In many words spelled with 'a' 'cat', 'bat', 'man' (RP // = NAmEng //) or 'o' 'pot', 'top', 'nod' (RP // = NAmEng //), the correspondence is reliable. 2. Perhaps because in many varieties of USEng // tends to be rather closer than in RP, many words felt to be 'foreign' have // in USEng corresponding to the // in RP. Thus 'Milan' is /mln/ in RP but may be /mln/ in NAmEng. 3. Probably as a consequence of the fact that NAmEng // in 'pot' is an unrounded vowel, 'foreign' words spelled with 'o' tend to have /ou/ in NAmEng corresponding to // in EngEng: EngEng NAmEng Bogota /bgt:/ /bougt/ Carlos /k:ls/ /krlous/ 4. NAmEng does not have the RP distinction // - /:/ 'bomb'-'balm', and therefore has // not only in the set 'pot', 'top', but also for many words that have /:/ in RP including 'father', 'calm', 'rather'.

5. While both RP and the variety of NAmEng described have a different vowel in 'cot' than in 'caught' - RP /kt/, /k;t/: NAmEng /kt/, /kt/- the distribution of words over these vowels differs somewhat. In some cases RP // corresponds to NAm //, and RP /:/ to NAm //. But it is also the case that RP // corresponds to NAm // in words having an 'o' before 'ng' or one of the voiceless fricatives /f/, //, /s/. In some areas this also applies to 'o' before 'g' as in 'dog', 'fog'. 6. NAmEng distinguishes between 'gnaw' and 'nor', since it's rhotic. 7. In words such as 'path', 'laugh', 'grass', where RP has a /:/ before //, /f/, /s/, NAmEng has //. 3. The rhoticity of NAmEng has the consequence that some RP vowels do not occur in NAmEng: // in 'dear' (=NAm /ir/) // in 'dare' (=NAm /er/) // in 'tour' (=NAm /ur/) // in 'bird' (=NAm /r/) NAmEng vowels 1. The vowel of 'pot' is unrounded [+ in NAmEng, rounded *+ in RP. 2. The vowel // of 'paw' in USEng tends to be shorter, more open and less rounded than the equivalent /:/ in RP. 3. Very front realizations of /ou/ such as RP [u] are not found in most varieties of NAmEng, a typical NAmEng pronunciation being [o]. 4. The diphthong /ei/ may be closer in NAmEng, [e+ as opposed to RP *e]. 5. The first element of /u/ tends to be more in front in NAmEng than in RP: NAmEng *a+, RP *+. NAmEng consonants 1. Glottal reinforcement as found in RP is not found in NAmEng. Neither is [] found as an allophone of /t/ in most NAmEng varieties, except before /n/ 'button' [bn] or, in NYC and Boston, before /l/: 'bottle' [bl+. Final /t/, however, is often unreleased in NAmEng, especially before a following consonant, as in 'that man'. 2, The RP allophonic differentiation of /l/: [l] vs [] is either not found or not so strong in NAmEng. In most varieties, /l/ is fairly dark in all positions. 3. Intervocalic /t/, as in 'better' in NAmEng is most normally vocalic flap [], not unlike the flapped /r/, [], of ScotEng. In many varieties the result is a neutralization of the distribution between /t/ and /d/ in this position, i.e. 'ladder' and 'latter' both have [], while intervocalic consonants are identical, in some varieties the original distinction is preserved through vowel length, with the vowel before /d/ being longer: 'ladder' [l], 'latter' [l]. In other varieties the distinction may be marginally preserved as /d/ = [d], /t/ = []. This flapped [] is consistently used in NAmEng in 'latter', 'city' etc. by most speakers, except in very formal styles, where [t] may occur. In the suffix -ity, [] may vary with [t], as in 'obscurity', 'electricity'. In 'plenty', 'twenty', etc. [nt] alternates with [n ~ ~ nd]. Thus 'winner' and 'winter' may or may not be identical. 4. Phonetically speaking, the /r/ is pronounced rather differently from that of RP. Acoustically the impression is one of greater retroflexion (the tip of the tongue is curled back further) than in RP, but many Americans achieve this effect by the humping up of the body of the tongue rather than by actual retroflexion. 5. As in AusEng, many USEng speakers have a strong tendency to reduce /lj/ to /j/ as in 'million' /mjn/. USEng varieties The South - south-eastern area of the US. Lower Southern (eastern Virginia, eastern North Carolina, eastern South Carolina, northern Florida, southern Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and south-eastern Texas). 1. Generally, Lower Southern accents are non-rhotic, i.e. they lack non-prevocalic /r/ in words such as 'cart' and 'car'. Many coastal Lower Southern accents are so non-rhotic, that they lack linking and intrusive /r/ as well as non-prevocalic /r/. 2. The vowels //, //, // often take a [] offglide in many stressed mono-syllables. At its most extreme, this process of 'breaking', as it is known, can give pronunciations, such as 'bid' [bjd], 'bed' [bejd], bad [bijd]. 3. The vowel /ai/ is often a monophthong of the type [a:], as in 'high' [ha:]. In some parts of The South, this monophthong only occurs word-finally and before voiced consonants, as in 'night time' [nat ta:m]. 4. The /ei/ and /ou/ diphthongs tend to have first elements rather more open than elsewhere in NA. 5. The vowels // and // are not distinct before a nasal consonant, so that words such as 'pin' and 'pen' are identical. 6. The verb forms 'isn't', 'wasn't' are often pronounced with /d/ rather than /z/: /dnt~ dn/. There is an increasing tendency to use /d/ rather than /z/ in the word 'business' also. Inland Southern (West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, western Virginia, western North Carolina, western South Carolina, northern Georgia, northern Alabama, Arkansas, south-western Missouri, Oklahoma, and most of Texas). These accents share most of the features of the Lower South, except that they are typically rhotic. Black varieties. Many Black Americans, wherever they come from in the US, have accents which closely resemble those of the White speakers from the Lower South. General American (American accents which do not have marked regional north-eastern or southern characteristics - the majority) Central Eastern (south-eastern NY State, most of New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland). 1. The vowels //, //, // are involved in the Northern Cities Chain Shift. 2. The vowel /ei/ as in 'bay' is becoming an increasingly narrow diphthong, with the first element coming closer. 3. The vowel /ai/ is undergoing a change such that the allophones that occur before voiceless consonants are increasingly different from those that occur elsewhere. The first element of the diphthong is increasingly being raised in the direction of []m giving pronunciations such as 'night time' [nt tam].

4. The vowel /u/ as in 'boot' is becoming increasingly fronted from [u:] in the direction of [u:]. 5. The vowel /ou/ of 'boat' is acquiring a fronter first element, although it is not yet as advanced as the [u]. Western (Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, North- and South Dakota). The vowel phonology is identical to that of the Central Eastern area, with two exceptions. 1. The vowel // of 'caught' is gradually disappearing in that it is increasingly becoming merged with the vowel // of 'cot', so that pairs of words such as 'taught' and 'tot', 'sought' and 'sot' are pronounced the same. 2. The vowel // of 'bad' is merged with // before an /r/ which becomes two syllables, so that 'marry' is identical with 'merry' [mi], and 'carry' rhymes with 'cherry'. 1. /i:/ and // may be merged before /r/, so that 'mirror' and 'nearer' are perfect rhymes. 2. // and /ei/ may be merged before /r/, so that 'merry' and 'Mary' are pronounce identically. 3. // and // may be merged before /r/, so that 'hurry' and 'furry' are perfect rhymes. 4. // may be replaced by // or /ou/ before /r/ so that 'horrid' has the same initial syllable as 'hoary' and 'horrible' rhymes with 'deplorable'. This is not a total merger. 3. Words such as 'new', 'nude', 'tune', 'student', 'duke', 'due', which in many other accents of English have /nju-/, /tju-/, /dju-/, lack /j/ in these accents, giving pronunciations such as 'tune' /tun/,'duke' /duk/. Midland (Nebraska, Kansas, western Iowa, most of Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, south-western Pennsylvania). The phonology of this area is identical to that of the Western area, except that the accents of south-western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio have carried the 'cot-caught' merger through to completion. Additionally, however, educated speakers from this area may also retain some features typical of the older rural dialects of the area. Notable amongst these is the behaviour of the vowels //, //, //, //, //, //, // where they occur before the fricatives // and //: 1. Words such as 'fish' may be pronounced with /i/, i.e. /fi/, identical to 'fiche'. 2. Word such as 'push' may be pronounced with /u/, i.e. /pu/, rhyming with 'douche'. 3. Words such as 'special' may be pronounced with /ei/, i.e. /speil/, identical to 'spatial'. 4. Words such as 'mash' may be pronounced with a vowel of the type [], i.e. [m]. 5. Words such as 'hush' may be pronounced with a vowel of the type [], i.e. [h]. Most noticeable, however, is the fact that words such as 'wash' may be pronounced with /r/, i.e. /wr/, rhyming with 'Porsche'. Northern (Minneapolis, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, northern Indiana, northern Ohio, northern Pennsylvania, north-western NY and west Vermont). The accents of this area are in most respects broadly identical to those of the Western area. One major difference, however, is that they are currently undergoing Northern Cities Chain Shift which involves the vowels //, // and // in a series of linked movements in vowel space. 1. // is moving forwards to take up a front vowel position *~a+ closer to the original position of //. This can lead speakers from other accent areas to misinterpret 'John' as 'Jan'. 2. // is lengthening and moving upwards through [:] to [e:] and even diphthongizing to [e] or []. This can lead to misinterpreting 'Ann' as 'Ian'. The following consonant would be the most important determining factor: e.g. 'man' may be [mn] but 'mat' [mt]. 3. //, presumably in order to move out of the way of // as it rises, is retracting and becoming a more central vowel closer in quality to //, so that 'best' may sound very like 'bust'. Northeastern - Eastern New England and NYC. Eastern New England (city of Boston, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, eastern Vermont, eastern Connecticut, eastern and central Massachusetts). Resembles the accents of England more than any other American accent, there are a number of phonetic similarities with AusNZEng. 1. The accents of the area are non-rhotic and have both linking and intrusive /r/. They share with EngEng and the Southern Hemisphere varieties the vowels //, //, //, /:/ of 'peer', 'pair', 'poor', 'bird'. In regions further away from Boston, however, /r/ does occur after // in items such as 'bird' and 'butter'. In the speech of younger speakers, non-prevocalic /r/ is beginning to be reintroduced. 2. Like EngEng, these accents have an additional vowel /a:/, which is used in words such as 'bard', as well as in words such as 'calm' and 'father' and words such as 'dance' and 'path'. This vowel is phonetically a rather front [a:]. 3. The vowel of 'pot', 'horrid' etc. is a rounded vowel // rather than the more usual American unrounded //. 4. The 'cot-caught' merger has been completed in these accents, both sets of words having //. Because // is lacking, and because these accents are also non-rhotic, items such as 'port' also have the // vowel, so that 'sot', 'sought' and 'sort' can all be pronounced the same. 5. Younger speakers in Boston and other urban areas also have the Northern Cities Chain Shift. NYC (can also be found in the immediately adjoining areas of NY State, Connecticut and New Jersey). 1. Non-rhotic, linking and intrusive /r/ are usual. As a consequence, the local accent shares with RP and the other non-rhotic accents the vowels //, //, //, /:/ as in 'peer', 'pair', 'poor', 'bird'. Younger speakers are now becoming increasingly rotic, especially amongst higher social class groups. 2. NY also has a additional vowel corresponding to EP /a:/. In NY, it is phonetically //. This vowel occurs in words such as 'bard', 'calm', 'father', but not in 'dance', 'path', which have // instead.

3. The vowel /:/ has a typical NY pronunciation where it occurs before a consonant in the same word, as in 'bird', 'girl'. This is a diphthong of the type []: [bd]. Now, it is most usual in lower class speech, and not so frequent in the speech of younger people. In word-final position, as in 'her', [:] occurs. 4. Words such as 'pot', 'horrid' have the more usual American unrounded vowel //. 5. The NY accent does not lack the vowels //, and so 'cot' and 'caught' are distinct, and 'sot /st/ is distinct from 'sought' and 'sort' /st/. The // vowel of 'caught', 'sought', 'talk', 'paw', 'long', 'off', 'port', 'sort', etc., however, has a distinctive NY pronunciation which is typically a rather close and often diphthongized vowel of the type [o] or even [], as in 'off' [f]. 6. The distinctively NY /ai/ vowel of 'buy', 'night', 'ride' has a back first element of the ype [+ or even *+. 7. Many NYers have pronunciations of // and // as dental stops [t] and [d]. In the case of //, this can lead to a merger with /d/, so that 'then' and 'den' are possible homophones. 8. Also involved in the Northern Cities Chain Shift. 10. North-American English vs. British English. LEHEL 11. Canadian English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). Divided into: General, Maritime, Newfoundland. General Canadian(English-speaking Canada - from Victoria and Vancouver in the west to Toronto, Ottawa and the Englishspeaking minority in Montreal in the east). The vowel system of this type of CanEng is identical with that of the Western area of the US without the innovations, but with some additional features: 1. The most distinctive feature of Canadian English is the phenomenon known as Canadian Raising. Before voiceless consonants, the diphthongs /ai/ and /u/ have allophones with raised central first elements which differ considerably from those which they have elsewhere. This gives pronunciations such as 'night time' *nt taim] and 'out loud' [t ld+. It is the raised allophone of /u/ in words such as 'out', 'house', 'mouth' which is now the most distinctively Canadian feature. 2. The loss of the vowel // and the merger of words such as 'cot' and 'caught' as /kt/ is complete in all forms of General Canadian English. 3. Canadian English has /ou/ in words such as 'borrow', 'sorrow', 'sorry'. 'Sorry thus rhymes with 'hoary'. Loan-words such as 'sari' have //. 4. The diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ of 'bay' and 'boat' are very narrow. 5. The Northern Cities Chain Shift is not found in CanEng. The vowel // of 'bad' and 'bat' may be very open, in some cases approaching [a]. Some foreign words spelt with 'a' such as 'pasta', are pronounced with //, as in EngEng. Maritime The English of younger educated speakers in urban areas such as Halifax is not radically different from that of the rest of Canada. Rural Maritime English, however, is distinctively different, having a number of similarities with the English of Newfoundland, and phonological features which appear to owe much to Irish or Scottish influence, such as affricated word-final /t/. Canadian Raising is not generally found in rural speech. Newfoundland The phonology of modern Newfoundland English is characterized by considerable social variation by NAm Standards, and nonstandard grammatical forms, such as present-tense -s for all people, occur very frequently and high up the social scale. There is also considerable regional variation. The speakers 'sound Irish'. In communities where immigration from Dorset and Devon played an important role, older speakers may still have the initial-fricative voicing in 'fish' [v], 'seven' [zvn] typical of the older dialects of the south-west of England; and a number of Irish-origin syntactic features can be found in Irish-influenced areas, such as habitual aspect expressed by 'do be' as in 'They do be full' (They are usually full). For many speakers, the vowels of 'cot' and 'caught' remain distinct. Canadian Raising is generally not found either. Many speakers have central onsets in /ai/ and /au/ in all phonetical environments, e.g. 'night time' [nt tm], out loud [t ld]. Differences between AmEng and CanEng pronunciation: In a few aspects, CanEng pronunciation follows EngEng rather than USEng: 1. 'been' is usually /bn/ in USEng, but occasionally /bi:n/ in CanEng as, more usually, in EngEng. 2. 'Again(st)' is usually /gn/ in USEng. This pronunciation is also used in Canada and in the UK, but in CanEng and EngEng it can also be /gen/. 3. 'Corollary', 'capillary' are stressed on the first syllable in USEng, with secondary stress on the penultimate syllable. CanEng follows EngEng in having the stress on the second syllable. 4. CanEng has 'shone' as /an/, never /oun/ as in USEng. 5. Some CanEng speakers have 'tomato' as /tmtou/. 12. Australian English (peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary). AusEng vowels: phonological differences from RP vowels 1. AusEng has /i:/ rather than // in 'very', 'many', etc. Thus, 'seedy' has the same vowel in both syllables in AusEng, while the vowels in 'city' differ. 2. AusEng has // rather than // in unstressed syllables. Thus, not only does // occur in the final syllable of 'horses' and 'wanted', it also occurs in the final syllable of 'naked', 'David', 'honest', 'village', etc. This applies also in the unstressed syllables in words such as 'begin' /bgn/ and 'laxity' /lksti:/. 3. AusEng follows RP in having /:/ in 'laugh', 'path', 'grass', etc., but it differs from RP, and is more like non-RP north-of-England accents, in often having // in 'dance', 'sample', 'plant', 'branch', etc. There is a certain amount of regional variation. The word 'castle' often has // in New South Wales and Queensland, while words from the 'dance' set often have /:/ in South Australia.

There is also some social variation. Other things being equal, /:/ forms are considered somewhat more prestigious than // forms. 4. RP smoothing of /u/ /:/, etc., does not occur. AusEng vowels: phonetic differences from RP vowels 1. AusEng front vowels tend to be closer than in RP (the body of the tongue is closer to the palate). 2. Some of the diphthongs are wider than in RP (the difference between the open first element and close second element is greater in AusEng than in RP). 3. There is a tendency for the diphthong to be 'slower' i.e. with a longer first element, than in RP, and even for diphthongs to become monophthongized, as in /ai/ as [ ~ ~ ]. 4. The /:/ vowel is a very front *a:+ in comparison to most other varieties of English. 5. Word-final // is often very open, e.g. 'never' [ev]. 6. The // vowel usually receives much more lip-rounding than in EngEng. AusEng consonants 1. AusEng is non-rhotic and has linking and intrusive /r/. AusEng /r/ is often more strongly retroflexed than in EngEng. 2. Intervocalic /t/ as in 'city', 'better', may become the voiced flap - [], as in NAmEng. However, it is not as common as it is in NAmEng, and [t] is also frequent in this environment. The glottal stop realization of /t/ may occur in 'fit them', as in RP, but not in any other environment. Glottal reinforcement as in 'box', 'batch' does not occur. 3. AusEng often has an /l/ that is darker than in RP, e.g. 'leaf' [f]. Other AusEng pronunciation features 1. 'Assume' etc. may be pronounced as /u:m/ rather than /su:m/ ~ /sju:m/. Similarly, 'presume' etc. can have // rather than /z/ or /zj/. 2. In some areas, /:/ may be heard in 'off', 'often', etc. more frequently than in RP. 3. 'Australia', 'auction', 'salt', which may have // or /:/ in RP, have only // in AusEng. 4. Days of the week tend to be pronounced with final /e/ rather than RP //, especially by younger speakers: 'Monday' /mnde/. 5. Initial /tj/, /dj/ may be pronounced as [t], [d], e.g. 'tune' [tun], though this is not especially common in educated usage. 6. The sequence /lj/ often becomes /j/, as in 'brilliant'. 7. 'Memo' is pronounced /mi:mou/, not /mmou/, as elsewhere. Grammatical differences between AusEng and EngEng. 1. The use of auxiliaries 'shall' and 'should' with first-person subjects, as in 'I shall go', 'We should like to see you', is less usual in AusEng than in EngEng, and even in EngEng, these are now increasingly replaced by 'will' and 'would', as in 'I will go/I'll go', 'We would like to see you'. 2. In EngEng, the following negative forms of 'used' are all possible: He used not to go He usedn't to go He didn't use to go with the first (older and more formal) construction being the most usual in writing. In AusEng, the third form is less usual than in EngEng, while the second form is probably more usual than in EngEng. 3. For some speakers of EngEng, the auxiliary 'do' is normally used in tag questions in sentences with the auxiliary 'ought': 'He ought to go', didn't he? In AusEng, 'do' is not used in such cases; instead, 'should' or 'ought' would occur (i.e. shouldn't he?, oughtn't he?). 4. The use of 'have' in expressing possession, as in 'I have a new car', is more usual in EngEng than in AusEng, where'got', as in 'I've got a new car' is preferred. 5. EngEng permits all the following double-object constructions: I'll give it him I'll give him it I'll give it to him The construction with 'to' is probably the most frequent in EngEng, especially in the south of England, and it is this form which is the most usual in AusEng. 6. In EngEng, it is quite usual for collective nouns to take plural verbs: The government have made a mistake The team are playing very badly The reverse is the usual case in AusEng, where the above two sentences would tend to have the singular forms 'has' and 'is'. 7. In colloquial AusEng, the feminine pronoun 'she' can be used to refer to inanimate nouns and in impersonal constructions. She'll be all right (Everything will be all right) She's a stinker today (The weather is excessively hot today) 8. In some constructions AusEng may use an infinitive rather than a participle: 'Some people delay to pay their tax'. 9. USEng-style adverbial placement may occur: 'He already has done it' 10. AusEng, like USEng, may have, for example, 'Have you ever gone to London?' where EngEng would prefer 'Have you ever been to London?'. 11. Some AusEng speakers use 'whenever' to refer to a single occasion, as in NIrEng. 12. The past participle forms 'known', 'blown', 'sown', 'mown', 'grown', 'thrown', 'shown', 'flown', are often pronounced with final /n/ rather than /n/, e.g. 'known' /noun/.

Lexical differences between EngEng and AusEng To barrack for - to support Stroller - push-chair To shout - to buy something (e.g. a Bludger - a loafer, sponger Wreckers - breakers round of drinks) for someone Footpath - pavement SLANG: A humpy - a shelter, hut Frock - dress To chunder - to vomit To chyack - to tease Get - fetch Crook - ill, angry An offsider - a partner, companion Goodday - hello A dag - an eccentric person A chook - a chicken Gumboots - wellington boots A drongo - a fool A larrikin - a young ruffian (one-storey) house - bungalow To rubbish - to pour scorn on To dob - to plonk (something down Lolly - sweet A sheila - a girl on something) Paddock - field To front up - to arrive, present To fine up - to improve Parka - anorak oneself somewhere Beaut - very nice, great Picture theatre - cinema To bot - to cadge, borrow Uni - university Radiator - (electric) fire Hard yakka - hard work To retrench - to stack, make Sedan - saloon car To shoot through - to leave redundant Singlet - vest Tucker - food Financial - paid up Station - stock farm A wog - a germ Interstate - in another Station wagon - estate car A spell - a rest, break Stove - cooker A park - a parking space Usage 1. It is usual in AusEng to use 'thanks' rather than 'please' in request: 'Can I have a cup of tea, thanks?' 2. Colloquial abbreviations are more frequent than in EngEng: e.g. 'beaut' beautiful, beauty; 'uni' university. 3. Abbreviated nouns ending in -/i:/ are more common in colloquial AusEng than in EngEng, and in many forms occur which are known in EngEng: e.g. 'truckie' truck driver; 'tinnie' tin (used especially of a can of beer). 4. Abbreviated nouns ending in -/ou/ are much more common in colloquial AusEng than in EngEng, and many forms occur which are unknown in EngEng: e.g. 'arvo' afternoon; 'muso' musician. 5. Abbreviated personal names ending in -/z/ are common, e.g. 'Bazza' Barry; 'Mezza' Mary. 13. New Zealand English NZEng vowels Phonetically and phonologically, NZEng accents are very similar to AusEng. NZEng is like AusEng in having /i:/ in 'very' etc., and // in 'naked' etc. It also has wider and slower diphthongs than RP, a very front /:/, and lacks smoothing. 1. Phonetically speaking, the NZEng vowel // as in 'bid' is a central vowel in the region of []. The contrast between AusEng 'bid' [bid] and NZEng [bd] is very clear, and the most noticeable indication of whether a speaker is an Australian or a New Zealander. The vowel // = [] has become merged with // after /w/, so that 'women' has become identical in pronunciation to 'woman'. Phonologically, younger NZers have no distinction between // and //, and thus pronounce 'finish' [fn], 'Philip' [flp], as compared to AusEng [flp] and RP [flp]. This means that there is no need to postulate // as a separate vowel in more recent varieties of NZEng. 2. In one phonological context, the RP vowel // corresponds to //, but to //. In unstressed word-final position, NZEng has a vowel identical to the stressed vowel of 'putt', e.g. 'butter' /bt/. This applies to the indefinite article 'a': 'a cup' / kp/. 3. The front vowels // as in 'bed' and // as in 'bad' are even closed than in AusEng: 'bed' *bed+, 'bad' *bd]. 4. For most speakers, as in South Australia, most words in the set of 'dance', 'sample', 'grant', 'branch' have /:/ = *a:+ rather than //. A few words in the 'laugh' set, however, generally hae //. This is especially true of 'telegraph', 'graph'. 5. There is a strong and growing tendency for // and // to merge, so that pairs such as 'beer', 'bear' are pronounced identically: *be:~ be]. 6. For many speakers, // and /ou/ are merged before /l/, so that 'doll' and 'dole' are identical. Distinctions between other vowels may also be neutralized before /l/, as well as before /r/, so that 'pull' and 'pool', 'fellow' and 'fallow', 'will' and 'wool', and 'Derry', 'dairy' and 'dearie' may be identical. Like in AusEng, /l/ is dark in all positions, and there is also an increasing tendency to lip-rounding and vocalization of /l/, i.e. syllable-final /l/ is either [] or a vowel with a quality around [o], e.e. 'bell' [be ~ beo]. 7. Unlike AusEng, the vowel // tends to be unrounded, as in many types of EngEng. 8. The /:/ vowel of 'bird' has a considerable degree of lip-rounding, as in WEng. NZEng consonants 1. In NZEng, the // of 'which' has been strongly maintained much more so even than in RP. However, it is now being lost in the speech of younger NZers. 2. Intervocalic /t/ as in 'city', 'better' is variably a voiced flap, as in AusEng. 3. Most forms of NZEng are non-rhotic, with linking and intrusive /r/, but the local accents of the southern area of the South Island are rhotic. This phenomenon is known to New Zealanders as the 'Southland burr'. 4. The word 'with' is pronounced /w/, rather than /w/, as in EngEng. NZEng grammar 1. NZEng resembles AusEng in avoiding 'shall', 'should'; in lacking totally the construction 'I'll give it him'; and, in the written language at least, in preferring singular verb agreement as in 'The team is playing badly'. 2. Many NZEng speakers also take the 'shall'-voidance one stage further than AusEng speakers, in the ScotEng manner, and used constructions such as 'Will I close the window?' rather than EngEng 'Shall I close the window?' NAmEng 'Should I close the window?'

3. Corresponding to EngEng 'at the weekend' and NAmEng 'on the weekend' many NZEng speakers have 'in the weekend'. NZEng lexis In most respects, NZEng agrees with either AusEng or with EngEng. Maori lexis The indigenous population of NZ are the Maori (~300 000) Tramping - hiking Aroba - love To farewell - to say goodbye to Haka - posture dance Hui - assembly To front - to turn up, appear Iwi - tribe To uplift - to pick up, collect Kaumatua - elder A domain - a recreation area Kaupapa - plan, rule To jack up - to arrange Mana - power, honour Marae - meeting ground An identity - a character Pa - village To flat - to live in a shared flat Paepae - threshold Colloquial usages: Pakeha - white person, NZer of European origin A joker - a guy, bloke Powhiri - welcome Rangatria - chief To skite - to beast Rangatiratanga - kingdom To wag - to play truant Runanga - assembly, debate A hoon - a yob Tangata - people A bach (from bachelor) - a cabin, cottage Taniwha - monster Tapu - sacred A crib - a cabin, cottage Taua - war A Kiwi - a NZer Tauiwi - foreigner Lairy - loud (of colours - in some areas only) Umu - oven Usage Waka - canoe Whare - house 1. As in AusEng, certain abbreviated forms not found in EngEng or NAmEng are common in colloquial speech, e.g. 'beaut' beautiful, Whakapapa - genealogy Whenua - land, country beauty; 'ute' utility vehicle, pick-up truck; 'varsity' university. 2, As in AusEng, 'thanks' can be used where other varieties of English normally have 'please': 'Can I have a cup of tea, thanks?' 3. As in AusEng, although the words involved are not in all cases the same, colloquial abbreviations ending in -/ou/ are common: 'arvo' afternoon; 'smoko' break, rest period'. 4. As in AusEng, although the words involved are not in all cases the same, colloquial abbreviations ending in -/i:/ are common: 'boatie' boating enthusiast; 'postie' postman, delivery worker.