How to Brew the Perfect Cup of Coffee

What Factors Affect Brewing?

The Freshness of the Coffee

The roasted coffee bean is perishable so make sure you love your beans! Coffee flavours are composed of gases, liquids and solids. These flavour components rapidly dissipate or become stale leaving the coffee with no aroma or flavour. Buy small amounts of beans often! Always store fresh in an airtight container in a cool, dark spot. Only grind when you have to, same goes for beans. (Fresh beans will keep their qualities for several weeks if stored properly while ground coffee will go stale in a matter of days!)

The Water

Coffee is 99% water! The quality of the water will greatly affect the flavour of the coffee. So make sure you use fresh, preferably filtered water. Always start with cold water, preheated water will adversely affect the flavour of your coffee.

The Grind

Using the correct grind is essential! How long the water stays in contact with the coffee depends on the grind and this will vary according to the method of brewing that you are using. Too coarse results in under extraction and too fine results in over extraction! Having your own grinder at home is a great idea and means you can grind your beans each time you brew.

The Quantity of Coffee

The Golden Rule here is 30 grams of coffee to 200mls of water, regardless of the method of brewing.

Clean equipment!

Whatever method of brewing you use, make sure everything is clean!

Different Methods of Brewing

Bewing Method Ibrik Filter Pulverised / Turkish Fine The finest of all, soft and fine as white flour Slightly grainy powder Grind Characteristic

Bewing Method

Grind

Characteristic

Pump Espresso Espresso Fine Stovetop Plunger Fine to Medium Medium

Powder with the consistency of salt Powder with the consistency of sand Like cornmeal

The Middle Eastern Ibrik

An entertaining and different way to brew coffee! It produces a syrupy and thick brew and is best suited for dark roast coffees. Try a blend of a winy coffee like Kenya, with some Sumatran and a good dark French or Italian roast. The grind should be very fine.

Brewing Turkish Coffee

Measure 2 level to rounded teaspoons of coffee per demitasse or short black cup, into the Ibrik. Add Sugar: Half a teaspoon for light, 1 level teaspoon for sweet, 1.5 teaspoons for heavy sweet. Measure in the water, never filling the ibrik more than half full. Stir to dissolve the sugar. Bring the coffee to the boil. As soon as the foam fills the flare at the top of the pot, remove from the heat source. Immediately and carefully, to avoid settling the foam, pour into cups. Fill each cup halfway first, then return and add some foam.

Brew Tips:

Bring just to a simmering boil. (Twice for Turkish, Three times for Greek) Only fill the Ibrik to half its capacity to allow for foam Use 2 teaspoons of coffee per demitasse If serving sweet use one teaspoon of sugar per teaspoon of coffee

Drip Filter or Filter Machine

Using finely ground coffee the drip or filter coffee is a great way to experience any origin, blend or roast. Simple to make, the quality of the coffee is consistent with a light bodied clear coffee free from oils and sediment.

Brewing Filter Coffee:

Measure 30g of coffee per cup to be brewed and place in filter. Measure 200mL of cold water per cup into water reservoir. With the brew interrupt feature in a closed position turn the machine on. Leave for 60 seconds, then release the brew interrupt switch, to

allow coffee to pass through. When brewing is complete, swirl the pot to stir coffee, then serve.

Brew Tips:

Use the brew interrupt feature to moisten, stir and steep the grounds for about 60 seconds before completing the cycle.

Swirl the pot before pouring the first cup Keep the coffee warm in a thermal carafe

Stovetop Espresso
Stovetops will deliver excellent espresso style coffee in the same way as a commercial machine, by infusing the coffee under pressure through the filters up into the serving bowl. Using a medium to fine grind they are best suited for blends such as the Columbus or richer bodied coffee.

Brewing Espresso Coffee:

Fill water reservoir with cold water to just below the pressure release valve. Place the coffee holder into position above the water reservoir. Fill the coffee holder with loosely packed fresh grounds. Screw on the brewed coffee reservoir. Place stovetop on medium heated element. When brewing is complete remove from element and serve immediately.

Brew Tips:

Don't over fill the grounds chamber Remove from heat when brewing has finished

Plunger Pot or French Press

The Plunger Pot produces a very rich bodied coffee resulting from the high ratio of coffee to water, the steeping time (or the time which the coffee comes into contact with the water) and the application of pressure. A quick and convenient way to brew coffee, ideal when combined with milk. Coffee should be coarsely ground and best suited for full-bodied coffees.

Brewing Plunger Coffee:

Heat plunger pot by rinsing with hot water. Measure 30g of coffee per cup into plunger pot. Measure 200ml of hot water, just below boiling, (Boiling water may scold your coffee!) into plunger pot. Stir. Fit filter onto pot. Wrap plunger with cloth, to maintain heat. Leave to steep for 3 minutes. Slowing press down knob. Remove cloth and serve.

Brew Tips:

Rinse the container with hot water before brewing Wrap a cloth around the pot during steeping to prevent heat loss

Esspresso Machines
The espresso machine extracts the maximum amount of flavour out of the coffee bean by forcing water through the finely ground coffee at great pressure. The full extraction is best suited to blends or full-bodied coffees.

Brew Tips:

Start with fresh water! All equipment must be clean All ingredients must be fresh The espresso machine, handle and cup should be hot before

beginning to brew

Never under fill the filter basket. Follow the correct procedure,

according to the manual for your machine

1 The basics 1.1 Overall factors 1.2 Temperature 1.3 Water quality 1.4 How much ground coffee should I use? 1.5 How do I keep coffee hot? 1.6 Coffee cups 1.6.1 Are paper cups more environmentally friendly than foam? 1.7 Why is coffee bitter? 1.8 What if my coffee is too strong or too weak?

1.1 Overall factors

Coffee quality depends on a combination of factors. Fresh beans, measured by both how long it's been since the beans were roasted and the time elapsed since grinding the beans, are imperative. High quality beans (measured by the specific crop, processing, handling, etc.) are, obviously, desirable, but the highest quality beans are all but useless if stale. Clean good-tasting water must be used, and the coffee must be brewed with clean equipment at the proper temperature for the proper amount of time. Simply buying top-quality beans is no guarantee of great coffee; if those beans are stale, the water quality poor, the brewing temperature low, or your equipment dirty, you will have wasted money on those expensive beans. Lesser quality yet freshly roasted beans, ground before use, will almost certainly be superior to a higher quality sample that is stale.

With all brewing methods, the goal is to balance strength and yield. These two elements are distinct but often confused. As noted in the section on water quality, brewed coffee is over 98 percent water; this is a measure of its strength--i.e., how much extracted coffee there is as a ratio to water. Not counting espresso or Turkish coffee, this mainly refers to the concentration of solubles; with espresso, that can be broadened to include emulsified oils (Turkish coffee often has a significant component of suspended solids). If your ratios fall outside of the proper range, the coffee is perceived as too weak or too strong. Most commonly this is a function of the quantity of ground coffee used for any given volume of water. However, the quality of solubles that are extracted determine another factor, the yield. If too little is extracted from the ground coffee (because the grounds are too coarse or the water contact time is too short), then the coffee will miss essential taste components. If too much is extracted (the coffee was ground too finely or the contact time is too long), then the brew will be bitter. Rather than being a measure of the total quantity of solubles extracted, yield is a measure of the desirable range of extracted solubles. To put it grossly, if you mix hot water and coarsely ground coffee in a one to one ratio and allow it to extract for thirty seconds, you will have a cup with a very strong grassy taste. A lot was extracted just because of the sheer quantity of coffee, but not enough of the desirable components. Similarly, if you add a tablespoon of finely ground coffee to a quart of hot water and let it steep for ten minutes, you will have a weak yet bitter brew.

1.2 Temperature
For coffee brewing, the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) prescribes a water temperature of 92 - 96 degrees C (195 - 205 degrees F); see The Basics of Brewing Coffee by SCAA Executive Director Ted Lingle. Avoid boiling then cooling the water to the proper range, or at least letting it boil for more than a few moments; boiling hot water rapidly loses dissolved air and will taste flat. If the water is too cool, the brew will be sour and underextracted. The temperature range during brewing should not vary by more then a few degrees, or extraction will not be optimal. Temperature loss often occurs as a result of heat absorption by the equipment itself (for example, if an espresso machine's portafilter is not kept warm between shots by storage in the machine) or into the atmosphere (as in a uninsulated glass French press during the approximately four minute steeping period). Pre-warming the equipment or insulating it, respectively, will solve these problems.

1.3 Water quality

Coffee is 98.5 to 99 percent water, so water quality will critically affect the resultant brew's taste. When making coffee, you should only use water that tastes good enough to drink straight. As a result, the best cups of coffee are made with filtered tap water or bottled water. Carafes or sink-based filters will likely perform better and have a lower per-gallon cost than the modest charcoal filters that some manufacturers include with their auto-drip machines. Do not mistake distilled water for filtered: the former is missing minerals that contribute to the water's taste and aid in extraction. When certifying a coffee brewer, the SCAA uses fresh cold water containing a formulation of between 50 to 100 parts per million dissolved minerals. The water should be fresh; it it has been sitting too long (or has been heated then cooled), it will be missing the dissolved air that is an important component of the water's taste.The water should also start cold: hot water has lost some of its dissolved air, and may have picked up minerals or solubles from your pipes.

Read Jim Schulman's The Insanely Long Water FAQ for much, much more information.

1.4 How much ground coffee should I use?

A standard "cup" of coffee uses six ounces (177 ml) of water. The SCAA's standard measure of ground coffee for this quantity of wateer is 10 grams (+/- 1 gram) or slightly over a third of an ounce (or, simply, two tablespoons). Since the ground coffee will absorb water, you will be left with approximately five and one-third ounces of coffee. Unless stated otherwise, the preceding is the ratio used in the FAQ's descriptions. Most coffee scoops and water chambers will be calibrated to this standard, but that is not necessarily so; the country of manufacture may result in different calibrations, and some measures may simply be wrong. Accurate scales can help verify how much a particular scoop holds. In parts of the world where a coffee cup is defined as a different quantity, the coffee/water ratio remains the same (e.g., in Europe, 7 grams per 4.25 ounces). For larger quantities, use 3.75 ounces (+/- 0.5 ounce) of ground coffee per half-gallon water, or 2.25 gallons water per pound of coffee (for commercial, urn-style brewing devices), slightly less than the ratio for a single cup. For metric measures, use 55 grams (+/- 5 grams) per liter. For those who find that the two tablespoon/6 ounce ratio produced too strong a cup, simply reduce the quantity of coffee used until the desired strength is reached. Recommendations to grind more finely and thereby use less coffee are simply wrong. Grind fineness is related to steeping time; using less but finer coffee will make the resultant product bitter; using less coffee under these circumstances will make a weak, bitter cup.

1.5 How do I keep coffee hot?

Optimally, brew a fresh batch whenever you want coffee. To keep coffee hot for shorter periods of time, or for travel, use a thermally insulated container; an enclosed container will reduce the loss of the aromatics that constitute an essential part of the overall flavor (but see here). Insulated containers with glass internals, though somewhat delicate, have the least effect upon the coffee taste, followed by good quality stainless steel. Coffee with significant residual sediment, such as coffee brewed in a French press, fares less well when kept hot for extended periods; the sediment continues to extract, making the coffee bitter. Optimal flavor is obtained by holding the coffee at high temperatures, at least 170 degrees Fahrenheit. Direct heate.g., via a warming plateshould not be applied to brewed coffee, at least not for more than few minutes; continued heating will make the coffee bitter. This issue is primarily a concern for autodrip coffee makers; choose a model that dispenses into an insulated carafe over one that uses a warming plate.

Reheating coffee in the microwave is controversial; the key issue may be the uneven heating microwaves are known for. There are those who theorize that parts of the coffee that overheat may taste unpleasant, thereby spoiling the cup as a whole.

1.6 Coffee cups

The issue of the "right" coffee cup seems to have mainly anecdotal responses. In theory, the best containers are simply those that keep the coffee hot and do not add flavors of their own. Heavy, pre-warmed ceramic cups probably serve those criteria best. Insulated plastic and metal containers are commonly used for travel mugs, as they can be durable and relatively lightweight. Theoretically, they are inert (assuming stainless steel or a quality plastic), but some aficionados swear that they can detect off-flavors, thought this may merely be evidence of lower-quality material. Disposable cups are almost invariably made from paper or expanded polystyrene ("foam"), the latter often incorrectly referred to as Styrofoam (a trademark of Dow Chemical and a different product). There are instances where coffee tastings and sensory skill sessions have been ruined by a perceived "papery" aspect from paper cups, and other people avow that foam cups contribute similar off-tastes. Paper cups usually have a wax or plastic coating to prevent the liquid from soaking through the paper, and this substance may create a brand-by-brand difference in cup quality. Drinking from a lidded container is detrimental to the coffee's flavor, as the lid will prevent aromatics, vital to the overall perception of taste, from reaching your nose. On the opposite end, the very wide "bowl style" cups lose their heat very quicklythe high surface area to volume ratio causes rapid evaporation. Optimally, choose a shape that both retains heat and channels the aromas to your nose. 1.6.1 Are paper cups more environmentally friendly than foam? Endless debates occur as to which material is more environmentally harmful, without specific conclusion. At least one paper, Paper Versus Polystyrene: A Complex Choice, (Hocking, Martin B., Science 251:504-505 (February 1, 1991)), noted that foam cups may be less damaging to the environment than paper cups: the chemicals and energy required to make paper cups combined with the emissions from incineration or the effects of burial may exceed the environmental impact of making and disposing of cups made of plastic foam

1.7 Why is coffee bitter?

Good quality coffee will commonly have some bitter elements, but they should exist in balance with other aspects; bitterness should not be an overwhelming component. Unfortunately, most people are rarely served anything but poorly prepared coffee that may also have been sitting on a warming element for extended periods, so the standard experience is that coffee is bitter.

1.8 What if my coffee is too strong or too weak?

First, be certain that the problem is that your coffee is too strong or too weak. Often people will confuse "bitter" with being "strong." If your coffee is unpleasantly bitter, one cause may be that your grind is too fine for the steeping duration; use a coarser grind. A lower-quality grinder will also produce a lot of dust, which will make the

coffee taste bitter. If the coffee is too coarse for the brewing technique, your coffee will be underextracted; use a finer grind. Your coffee isn't weak in the sense that the taste is diluted, it's because many of the desirable flavor elements (which don't all extract at the same time) are still in the grounds and simply never made it to your brew. See also section 1.1, Overall factors. There also is a myth that conflates weakness and bitterness in that some people believe that using too little coffee (a weak cup) will also almost invariably cause bitterness. The theory appears to be that since using an insufficient amount of ground coffee will result in there not being enough desirable coffee components available, the bitter elements will rush in to make up the difference. This is an erroneous belief; the various components of the bean are extracted over the course of the steeping period (the length of which varies as a function of grind coarseness) in a definite progression, with the desirable components mainly extracted during the first third of the extraction period, the extraction sharply dropping off during the second third, and the bitter and astringent components becoming predominant during the final third. Another issue is degree of roast. Some roasters over-roast their coffee as a matter of course, and the distinctive taste of charcoal may therefore cause the coffee to be labeled as strong. It isn't: the roasted beans are defective. Buy a different coffee, perhaps from another roaster. Or, the roaster may also have "baked" the coffee, which means that certain physical and chemical changes didn't occur during roasting, and the coffee will taste flat no matter what you do. Ultimately, if your beans are good, and the grind is appropriately fine for your brewing technique, then simply adjust the amount of coffee you use. If your grind is right, then you'll be extracting a desirable profile of solubles from the grounds, just in different quantities. .

2 Coffee beans 2.1 About coffee beans 2.1.1 What are coffee beans? 2.1.2 Arabica and robusta 2.1.3 How important is the beans' country of origin? 2.1.4 What's the difference between dry processing and wet processing? 2.1.5 Jamaican Blue Mountain 2.1.6 Kona 2.1.7 What is Mocha-Java? 2.1.7.1 So why does "mocha" refer to coffee with chocolate? 2.1.8 Why are some coffees aged? 2.1.9 What's a monsooned coffee? 2.1.10 What is a "peaberry"? 2.1.11 What are "espresso beans"? 2.2 What is the difference between the various decaffeination processes?

2.2.1 Solvent (European) process 2.2.2 Water Process 2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide Process, Sparkling Water Processes 2.3 Flavor terms 2.4 Roast names 2.5 Coffee bean size classifications 2.6 What is a cultivar? 2.1 About coffee beans Fresh beans are critical, and perhaps the commonly overlooked factor. Try to find a local roaster, or a coffee retailer where they can verify the roasting date, which should be no more than a week before sale. Look to see that the retailer is relatively busy and that their stock turns over frequently. Be suspicious if they store the coffee in containers that are exposed to the air, such beans will stale more rapidly than those stored in airtight containers. Some "gourmet" shops store their roasted beans in large, open containers holding twenty pounds each or more. Unless they're selling a truly amazing amount of coffee, much is it is likely stale. If a supermarket without an in-store roaster is your only option, look for sealed plastic, Mylar, or foil bags with the roasting date printed on them. You want a roasting date, not an expiration datethe latter is misleading, since you don't know whether the retailer is being unrealistically optimistic about how long they consider the beans to be fresh. The pre-ground, canned coffees sold in supermarkets are de facto stale (though many people believe that Illy canned coffee, which is packed under pressure, not vacuum, is an exception to this rule). Foil-wrapped vacuum-packed containers (where the package tightly conforms to the beans) should be avoided; since freshly roasted beans emit carbon dioxide, the tight packaging (i.e., the fact that the bag has not inflated), indicates that this outgassing has stopped and the beans are stale (the Illy canned coffees are again an exception, since the cans resist distension). The carbon dioxide emission lasts for up to two weeks after roasting, so the foil bags should have one-way exhaust valves so that they don't expand. Coffee is often at its best the day after it is roasted; therefore, beans roasted that same day are not an absolute requirement, though it will mean that they'll be usable for a longer period. Investigate roasters who sell through the mail or over the Internet; there are many roasters who will ship beans they day they are roasted. Grind your own coffee. If you are able to find a source for freshly roasted beans but then grind the whole package at the point of purchase, you have effectively gone back to buying pre-ground coffee, and it will become stale by the end of the day you bring it home. If you are steadfast in not purchasing a grinder, accept that your coffee will be less than stellar; purchase as small a quantity of ground coffee as possible at a time and repackage as mentioned in the section on storage. This also applies to whole bean coffee: buy what you can use in about week, and no more than you can use within two weeks after the coffee was roasted. 2.1.1 What are coffee beans? Coffee beans are the seeds of the coffee "cherry"; two seeds normally grow within each cherry. On the tree, the beans are covered by the silverskin (a vestigial remainder of the

fruit's development, also called the spermoderm). The silverskin is covered by a parchment skin (the endocarp), which is covered by a slimy layer (the parenchyma), surrounded by a thin layer of pulp (the mesocarp), all covered by an outer skin (the exocarp). These layers must be removed prior to roasting, though some silverskin often remains attached. 2.1.2 Arabica and robusta All coffee beans come from plants in the genus Coffea. Although there are thousands of species of plants within this genus, with tremendous variance in size and shape, only two are of commercial importance: Coffea arabica, and Coffea canephora, the latter more commonly called robusta, after a prime variety. A third species, Coffea liberica has found some localized production in Liberia, but it is of minor significance in the global market. Arabica is genetically distinct: it has four sets of chromosomes, whereas robusta, and liberica each have two. Sensory descriptions The taste of arabica beans differ between varieties and growing regions--the same variety grown in different parts of the world will taste different. These taste notes can be as varied as berries (blueberry is often particularly noted in Ethiopian Harrar), earthy (a characteristic associated with Indian and Indonesian coffees,) citrus (common with Central Americans), or chocolate (see note on mocha). On average, a robusta will be harsher. One importer likened a particularly bad origin to dung, though very fine robustas can, potentially, compare favorably to a quality arabica. Premium robustas are essentially reserved for espresso blends, where they are primarly used to greatly improve the crema and to add a certain bite to the shot. The difficulty is in finding an exceptional robusta; growers and processors are often not willing to dedicate as much effort to robusta as they are to arabica, since the only potential market is for those blends. Robustas are rarely sold straight; instead, in addition to premium robustas used in espresso blends, poor quality robustas may be added to freeze-dried coffees or to coffee-flavored frozen drinks where the sugar and cream overwhelm the off-notes. Robusta has notably more caffeine than arabica. Production Conditions In subtropical conditions, arabaics best thrive at lower altitudes, from as low as 1000 feet in the Kona region of Hawaii, to about 4000 feet in regions of Mexico and a few other locations. Closer to the equator, coffee tends to thrive at higher altitudes, from 3500 feet up to 9500 feet in Ecuador, though the latter is exceptional, and the usual ceiling is closer to 6000 feet. Both frost and high heat can damage or kill the plants. Too much or too little rain can adversely effect fruit production; likewise, the soil must be moist but well-drained. Coffee plant naturally do well in well-lit but forest-shaded regions. Newer hybrids do well in full sun, but are controversial for other reasons (See What is "songbird friendly" coffee?.) Arabicas are not very resistant to insects or fungus, and there have been a few major scares where significant acreage was threatened by leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) or other pests. Lower altitude regions that aren't as well suited to growing arabicas are nevertheless used to grow poorer quality examples; these are often carelessly handled and sometimes generically referred to as

Brazils. This is not indicative of origin: "Brazils" are not necessarily grown in Brazil, a country that also produces high quality coffee. Robustas do well at lower altitudes, are more disease resistant, and yield more fruit. As a result, the overall cost per pound is lower than arabica. In General Over sixty-five percent of the coffee grown throughout the world is arabica, but much of it is unexceptional. On its own, the label "arabica" is no assurance of quality: you will need to know much more about it and find a reputable retailer who can provide much more information, and who has sampled ("cupped") each lot. As noted, although Brazil grows some excellent coffee, a sizeable portion of the arabica grown there is of quite poor quality, to the point where the coffee trade uses a particular term, "Rioy" (from Rio de Janeiro), to describe certain particularly harsh, pungent coffees. As with most foods, although there are some objective factors, taste is ultimately subjective. While very few people will find Vietnamese robusta enjoyable, not everyone will agree that Jamaican Blue Mountain is the epitome of flavor. As a broad rule, all-arabica blends will considerably taste better, but a superior robusta may fare better than a poor quality arabica. 2.1.3 How important is the beans' country of origin? The coffee's country of origin is largely a matter of subjective taste, and you will benefit by sampling a wide variety of origins and roasting styles. Origin is important in that the comparative bean flavor between growing regions, even within the same country, can be quite different. As a result, it is difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the coffees in any particular region. 2.1.4 What's the difference between dry processing and wet processing? This refers to how the pulp is removed from the bean. Dry processing is the oldest method of processing coffee. The cherries are washed and then spread out on drying racks to dry in the sun for several weeks, or alternatively, are dried by machine. During this drying process, the pulp ferments, lending a particular taste to the bean. How the coffee is handled during dryingwhether sun-dried coffee is protected against adverse weather or temperature, the machine driers' temperature, etc. effects the eventual quality and flavor of the bean. After the beans are dried, they are machine processed to remove the dried outer layers. Wet processed beans have their outer skins removed by machine processing, then the fruit with the exposed pulp is allowed to ferment in tanks where bacteria and naturally occurring enzymes consume the pulp. The beans are then washed and dried, also either by sun or machine, and the dried beans are then milled to remove the remaining layers. Some beans are semiwashed. The outer skins are removed, but the pulp is allowed to dry on the beans. The beans are then hulled as in the dry process, but the pulp is usually wetted as part of this step.

Broadly put, many feel that dry processing enhances body and complexity, whereas wet processing enhances clarity and acidity. Semiwashed is an attempt to combine these enhancements. 2.1.5 Jamaican Blue Mountain Often used as a synonym for coffee excellence, Jamaican Blue Mountain refers to a specific region on the island of Jamaica: the Blue Mountains, of which Blue Mountain Peak is the highest point on Jamaica at 7,402 feet. Only coffee grown on certain estates may be called "Blue Mountain": Wallenford, Mavis Bank, Silver Hill, and Moy Hall registered the rights to call their product Blue Mountain, and Old Tavern Estate was in recent years awarded the right to use the name. The sale, roasting, and export of Blue Mountain coffee is strictly controlled by the Jamaican government and the Coffee Industry Board. Jamaican Blue Mountain (or JBM) is quite expensive, often $30 a pound or more, but the general consensus of professional roasters today is that the brand rides on its reputation and mystique, and that the taste of the modern day JBM is not as good as the JBM of the 1970s or 1960s. Further, there is a considerable quantity of counterfeit JBM out there not surprising, considering that the quantity sold each year worldwide handily outstrips the actual yearly production. Not all of it is outright counterfeit some is simply misleading: you may see "Jamaica Blue Mountain style" coffee, or "Jamaica Blue Mountain Blend." The former likely doesn't actually contain any JBM, and the latter need only contain as little as 5% authentic JBM to be called a JBM Blend. There is also Jamaica High Mountain, which refers to coffee grown by estates in the area that cannot use the JBM label. These may well be high quality coffees, but they should not cost nearly as much as true Jamaican Blue Mountain. 2.1.6 Kona Hawaii is the only state in the United States that grows coffee, though several US territories also grow it. Compared to Jamaican Blue Mountain, Kona's lower per-pound price yields a coffee whose quality is arguably more commensurate with its price. Located on the western coast of the island of Hawaii, Kona stretches twenty miles north-south and two miles east-west, and is divided into the North and South Kona Districts. Under federal and state regulations as well as federal trademark, only coffee grown here may be called Kona. The Kona region constitutes somewhat less than half of the 7,600 acres devoted to coffee on the Hawaiian Islands; most of the remainder approximately 4,100 acresis on Kauai. Kona is the oldest continually planted region for Hawaiian Island coffees; most of the other Hawaiian coffees were planted during the 1980s on available fallow sugar lands after the demise of the Hawaiian sugar plantations. Kona coffee, Var. typica, was first planted in 1829 and has continued to thrive; many of the trees are over 100 years old. Most of the 680 or so farms are less than four acres, although there are also a few huge estates. Due to the island's isolation and the state's strict import restrictions on agricultural products, minimal pest control is required and, as a result, no pesticides are used, nor may they legally be used. With a rainy growing

season and a cool, dry harvesting season, the region is particularly well suited to coffee production. As with Jamaican Blue Mountain blends, Kona sold as a "blend" may contain small quantities of Kona. In the state of Hawaii, coffee lableed "Kona blend" may by law contain as little as ten percent real Kona coffee; elsewhere, there are no set minimums. The Kona Kai scandal of 1996 was a notable instance of fraud: Costa Rican and Guatemalan coffee was relabeled and sold as Kona. This effected some changes in the sale of Kona, with a "100% Kona" certificate or a "Kona Coffee Council 100%" seal available. All large quantities of unroasted Kona Coffee will have the Hawaii State Certification tag on the burlap bag; the consumer does not usually get to see these bags, but you might be able to ask the roaster to show them to you. Not all Kona farmers pay for certificationit is not required for the sale of roasted beans or smaller quantities of greenso legitimate Kona may not be specifically labeled as such. Buy directly from a Kona farm, or a well-regarded retailer you trust. Note that although Kona coffee farmers may meet the standards of Fair Trade coffee, for technical reasons they cannot be certified as such. 2.1.7 What is Mocha-Java? Mocha is a port in Yemen, near the southern end of the Red Sea, though it has been of negligible use as a port since the late 1800s. Java is an island in Indonesia. Mocha referred to those beans shipped from the port of Mocha, and Java to those beans grown on Java. Mocha Java was the world's first successful commercial blend of two coffees. It is commonly believed that roasters in the mid to late 1800s recognized that certain aspects of the Yemeni bean worked in harmony with the Java beans. On the other hand, it merely have been expedient to mix these two widely-known coffees. Unfortunately, the original Mocha-Java blend that was a commercial success over 120 years ago is lost to us today because of a blight of coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix, or "la roya") that wiped out the old Java stock of coffee trees prior to the start of the 20th century. Eventually the island's coffee tree population was replanted, but coffee historians agree that the bean from the new trees never equaled the taste profile of the old one, and the original Mocha-Java blend is forever gone. Today, highly skilled roasters can emulate the Mocha-Java blend taste, but they often pick beans that are neither Yemeni Mocha nor Indonesian Java to achieve it. Since we can't truly know how that original blend tasted, using non-Yemeni and Indonesian coffees is not necessarily inauthentic. 2.1.7.1 So why does "mocha" refer to coffee with chocolate? Purportedly, resellers unable or unwilling to purchase true Mocha coffee began adding small quantities of chocolate to other beans and reselling it as Mocha, in an attempt to duplicate the subtle flavor of the real bean. A alternate explanation that has been offered is that a combination of coffee and chocolate was called "mocha" in honor of the wellregarded coffee that it was reminiscent of. This practice was later applied to any coffee to which chocolate has been added. 2.1.8 Why are some coffees aged? Unroasted coffee beans that are properly stored will change their taste profile. Acidity decreases and the perceived body deepens, while certain defects can become less apparent. Those coffees given the appellation "aged" are usually held for a number of

years under carefully controlled conditions, and may have extraordinarily rich bodies. However, some aged coffees simply taste old and flat. Make sure you buy aged coffee from a reputable dealer who has sampled ("cupped") that particular batch. 2.1.9 What's a monsooned coffee? Monsooned coffees have been held in open-sided warehouses and exposed to the steady, damp monsoon winds. In a matter of weeks, the beans yellow, and gain a flavor reminiscent of, but distinct from aged coffees. By far the most common monsooned coffee is Indian monsooned Malabar. Again, buy from a retailer who is personally familiar with the particular batch of coffee you are considering purchasing. Monsooned coffee isn't for everyone, but it should be sampled. 2.1.10 What is a "peaberry"? The normal development of the coffee cherry creates two seeds, which grow with their flat sides facing each other. Infrequently, one seed fails to thrive and a single, round bean fills the available space. Often sorted out and sold separately, these single beans are known as "peaberries" and are technically mutant growths. Some in the coffee trade argue that peaberries have a richer, more concentrated flavor than normal beans, but others claim that they cannot discern a difference in a blind cupping. Today, the most famous peaberry is probably Tanzanian, where the plants seem more prone to producing peaberries than anywhere else. But you can often find peaberry-only versions of Kona, Kenyan AA, Java, and other types of "famous name" coffees if you shop around long enough at specialty coffee houses and online shops. 2.1.11 What are "espresso beans?" Although frequently used to refer to a dark, oily roast, there really is no such thing as "espresso beans" or "espresso roast." These names refer to different blends of coffee varieties and roasts, created with the intent of achieving an optimal espresso; no two blends are likely to be the same. Often, the goals are different: optimally, espresso intended for milk-based drinks will have different taste criteria than espresso intended to be drunk straight; the former needing aspects that can cut through the taste of the milk. Roasters will often have their own proprietary blends with closely guarded compositions.

2.2 What is the difference between the various decaffeination processes?

There are three processes for decaffeinating coffee: solvent, carbon dioxide, and water process. Regardless of technique, all coffees are decaffeinated prior to roasting. 2.2.1 Solvent (European) process Technically speaking, all of the processes are solvent-based, since a solvent merely refers to a substance that is capable of dissolving another substance. However, in this field the common usage is to use the terms "solvent" or "chemical solvent" to refer to the process that uses either methylene chloride (dichloromethane) or ethyl acetate. There are two ways in which solvents are used to remove caffeine from coffee: a direct process, and an indirect process. The steps are essentially the same whether methylene chloride or ethyl acetate is used. In the direct process, the beans first are steamed, which causes them to swell and become somewhat more permeable. The beans are then put into contact with the solvent, under pressure, for a specified period of time, which will, by and large,

selectively extract the caffeine. The solvent is then processed to remove the caffeine, and can be reused for the next batch. The beans are usually steamed again after treatment in order to remove the remaining solvent. In the indirect process, the beans are soaked in hot water, which removes almost all of the soluble compounds, including the caffeine. The water is drained off and mixed with the solvent, which bonds with the water. The solvent/caffeine mixture, less dense than the water, floats to the surface where it can be removed. The water and beans are mixed together, and the beans soak up most of the lost flavors. Ethyl acetate is a substance that occurs naturally in many fruits and other foods, thereby earning the "natural" label, and it is is marketed towards those who are concerned that methylene chloride may have adverse health effects. Note that although ethyl acetate occurs in nature, the substance used for decaffeination likely has an industrial origin, thereby undercutting the "natural" appellation. The US Food and Drug Administration has labeled ethyl acetate as "Generally Recognized as Safe " (GRAS). The dangers of methylene chloride decaffeination are widely debated: the World Health Organization found the main toxic effects of the chemical itself (without evaluating the decaffeination process) to be reversible central nervous system depression and carboxyhaemaglobin formation. Additional effects reported were liver and renal dysfunctions, hematological effects, and neurophysiological and neurobehavioral disturbances. The studies were not able to make definitive conclusions regarding any links between methylene chloride exposure and cardiovascular disease or cancer. (The WHO Environmental Health Criteria Series, volume 164.) However, processing virtually eliminates any residual solvent content, and levels cannot exceed regulated levels. Methylene chloride evaporates at 104 degrees F (40 degrees C), and so would not survive the roasting process.Though the chemical itself may be dangerous, there do not appear to be any tests that found residual methylene chloride in decaffeinated coffee, and it is also GRAS for this purpose. 2.2.2 Water Process The process is similar to the indirect solvent process, with a few twists. First, activated charcoal, rather than solvents, removes the caffeine from the water. Second, rather than recombining the water with the beans, the first batch of beans is thrown out and the water is combined with a new, untreated batch of beans. The theory behind this is that since the water is already saturated with every dissolvable compound except for caffeine, only the caffeine in the beans will dissolve, leaving the flavor intact. Since the water is used over and over, some flavors may become commingled between batches. The most well known variant is the Swiss Water Process, the first economically viable water decaffeination process and the current industry leader. The company asserts that it has made substantial improvements to reduce the cross-batch contamination phenomena, to the point where they are not an issue. 2.2.3 Carbon Dioxide Process, Sparkling Water Processes When certain gasses are compressed above certain critical pressures and critical temperatures (73 bar/1059 psi and 88 degrees Fahrenheit in the case of carbon dioxide), they are known as supercritical gas fluids, exhibiting traits of both gas and liquid. In

both of these processes, supercritical carbon dioxide is combined with the beans, where it combines with the caffeine. The carbon dioxide is then isolated and filtered to remove the caffeine. In carbon dioxide process this is done with activated charcoal; in sparkling water process, the carbon dioxide is mixed with water, which filters out the caffeine.

2.3 Flavor terms

Flavor descriptions are inherently subjectivenot surprising, considering how subjective taste can be. Unlike other sensory descriptions that have relatively objective descriptions (loud, soft, furry, scaly), taste (and smell) is often hard to describe. Flavor terms can be divided into roast related descriptors and descriptors related to the bean variety (though this division is not a standard one). The roast related flavors refer to those characteristics imparted to the bean as a result of the roasting process. Varietal and processing terms refer to those aspects that are inherent in bean, or imparted as a result of the green bean's pre-roast processing. Roasting can substantially affect the intrinsic flavor and aroma of the bean; roasters will act in order to balance this and to enhance the beans' inherent profile. One further factor is preparation method; this can drastically change the coffee's character. Acidity Related both to the roast and to variety. This term is akin to the description of acidity in wine, not to acid content. Indeed, retailers may avoid using this term in order to avoid confusion, and rely on terms such as "bright" or "lively." Acidity is more of a sensation than a taste, and is experienced on the tip of the tongue and/or the roof of the mouth. During roasting, acidity varies in an approximately inverse relation to body or bittersweet aspects; as the degree of roast increases, perceived acidity decreases. Coffees without acidity tend to taste flat, lacking a pleasant palate-cleansing aspect. Acidity can often have wine-like aspects, especially in many Kenyan coffees, or can come across as citrusy. When acidity is extreme, it can feel astringent, as if the moisture has been sucked from your mouth. Aroma Related to both roast and variety. Most of our taste perception comes from our sense of smell, so the volatile aromatics emitted from brewed coffee play an important role in its taste. Aroma develops during roasting, but as the roast starts becoming dark, the carbonized sugars become dominant. Baked or Bready A roast related term. Baked coffee is flat, with little aroma; typically the result of an insufficiently high roasting temperature over too long a period of time. In other words, if the heat applied to the unroasted coffee is too low, the physical and chemical changes do not occur in a desirable fashion. Balance Roast and variety related. The pleasing combination of multiple characteristics, none overpowering. Body Roast and variety related. Body is a textural quality, a perception of viscosity or fullness on the tongue; one roaster has likened it using your tongue as a weight scale.

Body develops with the degree of roast, falling off sharply with over roasted coffee, but it can also vary by origin. Distinguish between body and the "thickness" imparted by some brewing methods, like coffee from a press, where fine particulates remain suspended, or espresso, which contains emulsified coffee oils. Underextracted coffee will also have a defectively light body. Bitter Roast and preparation related. This is not always a defect; up to a point, it can be desirable. Robusta is more bitter than arabica, but mild coffees can become bitter if over roasted or over extracted during brewing. Bittersweet Roast related term. Often mischaracterized as "strong," the bittersweet aspect is created by the caramelization of sugars in the bean. The longer the coffee is roasted, the greater the caramelization, until at last the sugars are completely burned, giving the coffee a taste akin to charcoal (see next entry). Burnt When very mild, this aspect may be desirable for cutting through drinks containing a lot of milk and/or sugar, though there are those who like it in a straight cup. When overdeveloped, it is the flat taste of charcoal; this taste can be overwhelming. Clean Clean-tasting coffees are free of defects or undesirable distractions. Complexity: Complexity simply means that the cup has many elements--aromas, textures, and tastes--apparent at once, or in succession. Since it is rare to fnd all of the desirable elements in a single origin, roasters often roast different coffees to achieve a varied profile. Earthy, or Natural Within limits, this can be a pleasant note, but more commonly a defect in which the brewed coffee has an aftertaste akin to freshly turned soil. Commonly relates to poor processing, one way this defect can occur is when the beans absorb flavor from the dirt on which they were spread to dry. In more muted degrees, this quality can add interesting notes to a coffee. Flat Lacking in taste or aroma; low in acidity. Often occurs when the coffee goes stale. Grassy Processing related. The aroma and taste of hay, or a newly mown lawn. This can result from prematurely picked cherries. Musty Moldy, mildewy ; often the result of some improper storage conditions. Improper aging also can cause mustiness, while proper aging can contribute a desirable flavoring aspect (see Section 2.1.7)

Rioy (REE-oh-ee) A harsh, medicinal quality, the term derives from a reference to low quality coffees from Brazil (i.e., Rio De Janiero). See also here. Sour Unpleasantly acrid or sour, as if contaminated by vinegar. This taste can occur in lowgrowing, unwashed coffees, but commonly occurs in under roasted coffees, or even properly roasted beans that were then brewed with water that was too cool.

2.4 Roast names

There is little consistency in roast descriptions; one roaster's full city roast is another's espresso roast. In recent years, regional variations have blurred. For commercial reference, an objective reference has been established by the SCAA called the Agtron gourmet scale, ranging from #95 (lightest) to #25 (darkest). A sample of roasted coffee is illuminated, and the reflectance of certain near-infrared wavelengths is measured; this closely determines the thermal absorbencies of the coffee. The machine that takes these measurements is quite expensive, so a less expensive alternative exists in the form of a series of color tiles that are compared to the roasted and ground beans. Nevertheless, some generalizations can be made, though again the distinctions are, again, somewhat arbitrary: Light Cinnamon Light tan, dry, unpleasantly sour, little or no body. Reminiscent of cereal. Cinnamon Slightly darker than light cinnamon, but the taste and texture is little different. Light or New England Light brown, sourness has decreased, but the cereal taste is largely gone.The name derives from its original use for inexpensive coffee in the eastern U.S. American Light to medium brown; once the predominant roast in the United States. Varietal variance distinct. Viennese or Full City Medium brown, the norm for most of the Northwestern US. Body, flavor, and aroma are quite balanced Espresso Medium to dark brown with drops of oil on the surface, greater sweetness, carbonized sugars lend a caramel flavor; body exceeds acidity. French Surface is dark brown and lightly coated with oil; burnt notes become noticeable, acidity low.

Italian or Dark French Almost black, with a lot of surface oil. Tasted clearly burnt; acidity and even body are almost undetectable. Spanish Oily and black and very oily; overwhelming charcoal taste.

2.5 Coffee bean size classifications

Coffee is commonly classified based upon screen size, i.e., the size of the holes of a screen sorting system. The screen holes are based on sixty-fourths of an inch, so a #15 is 15/64"; this can also be given in metric equivalents. If nothing else, classification helps ensure bean size uniformity which makes roasts more even (though some roasters eschew uniformity for complexity, at least for certain bean varieties). Additionally, there is a belief that larger size beans have a better taste profile, though that is by no means a uniform rule, especially when comparing different varieties of coffee (there are many inherently smaller varieties that have a "richer" taste than some larger varieties) In addition to the screen size classifications, there are also regional classifications; for example (from smallest to largest within each series): Terceras, Segundas, and Superior (Central American and Mexican); Excelso or Supremo (Colombia); C to B to AA (African and Indian); and No. 1, Fancy, and Extra Fancy (Kona). A single "named size" may translate to different screen size measures, depending upon the intended export destination (that is, the retail market).Named classifications may have other differences as well: the Kona rankings also account for the average defects per pound. Size grading is usually done for export purposes, with the lowest grade beans not considered exportable

2.6 What is a cultivar?

Also called a varietal, a cultivar a variety of a plant that has been developed by selective breeding. There are two naturally occurring varieties of arabica coffee, bourbon and typica (the latter also simply called Arabica). Bourbon derives its name from the island of Reunion, formerly named Bourbon, where the variety (grown from transplanted trees) was first identified. Other cultivars in use today are generally derived from these two. Some other cultivars are: Mundo Novo, Maragogype, Catimor, Catuai, Caturra, Variedad Colombia, Pacas, and Blue Mountain . This is not an exhaustive list.

3 Brewing Techniques 3.1 Proper extraction times 3.2 A note on filtration versus percolation 3.3 Drip 3.3.1 Chemex brewers 3.3.2 One-cup brewers 3.3.3 Filtercone holders 3.3.4 Vietnamese coffee maker

3.3.5 Reversible coffee pot / flip pots / Napoletana 3.3.6 Auto-drip 3.4 Single-Serve Coffee Systems 3.5 Biggin 3.6 French Press / Press Pot / Cafetiere / Plunger Pot 3.7 Espresso 3.8 Vacuum pot 3.9 Percolator 3.10 Ibrik / cezve / briki / mbriki 3.11 Moka pot 3.12 Cold water process 3.13 Microwave brewing 3.14 Instant 3.15 Filters 3.15.1 Paper filters 3.15.2 Metal filters 3.15.3 Cloth filters 3.15.4 Plastic filters 3.15.5 Glass filters 3.16 A final note on brewing techniques

3.1 Proper extraction times

As a general rule, extraction time is directly proportional to grind coarseness. That is, the smaller the coffee particles, the shorter the extraction time should be. French press coffee generally has the longest extraction times, with coffee/water contact lasting as long as four minutes; the grind is, therefore, about the coarsest used. For those who prefer using a somewhat finer grind for this brewing method, the steeping period should be shortened. Espresso has the shortest contact time, about twenty-five seconds, so the particle size is among the smallest. Most of the desirable flavorsand the caffeineare extracted first. If the coffee is allowed to remain in contact with the water for too long for its particle size, additional compounds start to extract and these will make the coffee taste bitter. Similarly, if your particle size is disproportionately large for your extraction time, only a small quantity of the desirable compounds will be extracted, so the coffee will be underextracted and lacking in flavor (which is not the same as weak).

3.2 A note on filtration versus percolation

William Ukers' treatise "All About Coffee" notes that "true" percolation refers to dripping through "fine interstices of china or metal," while in filtration the dripping occurs through a porous substance such as paper or cloth. As a result, much of the current nomenclature is technically incorrect. However, the popular conceptualization of "percolation" now refers to a particular brewing device that may use either metal or paper filters; see section 3.9. Similarly, many drip devices use metal filters.

3.3 Drip
Most of the coffee consumed in the United States is produced via some variant of the

drip method: hot water is poured over medium-grind coffee contained within a filter; the water steeps and drips through, yielding coffee. The only impediment to the water's passage is resistance from the ground coffee and the filter. There are many variations on drip brewers' appearance and specific functionality; this FAQ will describe the more common ones. 3.3.1 Chemex brewers Invented in 1941, the Chemex brewer resemble an hourglass and has a distinct "science lab" appearancenot surprising, considering that it was invented by a chemist, Dr. Peter J. Schlumbohm, who combined a heavily modified glass funnel and an Erlenmeyer flask. Special paper filters are placed in the upper section; these filters, different than standard paper filters, are quite thick and manage to trap sediment while passing a large portion of the aromatic compounds. The filter is filled with medium- to coarse-grind coffee, a small amount of the brewing water is poured over the grounds, just enough to wet them, then the rest of the hot water is poured. If the filter cannot hold all of the brewing water, stop pouring until the level drops (as the brewed coffee drips out), then continue to add the water. Due to the thickness of the filters, you may find that a grind suitable for a standard paper filter is too fine for a Chemex filter. Chemex is a trademarked term, and therefore does not refer to a generic style of brewer. 3.3.2 One-cup brewers These are exactly that: they are small enough to fit onto a coffee mug, and brew one cup of coffee at a time. Some come with inserts that fit on top of and into the filter; these inserts have small perforations on their bottoms, and serve to regulate the flow of water dripping onto the coffee. These brewers often use metal filters, integrated into the unit as a whole. A few of these devices are made out of ceramic, while others are plastic; they esemble the filter basket section of auto-drip machines. Distinguish from 3.3.3 filtercone holders. 3.3.3 Filtercone holders Similar to the one-cup brewers, but they make larger quantities, dispensing the coffee directly into thermally insulated containers. These generally accept cone-shaped paper filters or similarly shaped metal mesh ones. 3.3.4 Vietnamese coffee maker This is basically a one-cup brewer, but there are some differences. The device has three parts: the main body looks like a small coffee cup and saucer molded together, with a threaded rod standing vertically in the middle of the inside; the bottom of the "cup" is a filter. A second filter fits into the main body; it has a hollow central post that screws onto the threaded rod. The last item is a lid. The cup or mug (onto which the coffee maker is placed) should first be heated by filling it with boiling water for a short while, then draining it. Place the main body onto the mug, fill it with finely ground coffee, and then screw the second filter down tightly. A coffee/chicory blend is traditional, as is pouring some sweetened condensed milk directly into the mug (though the milk can be added later). Pour a splash of very hot water into the brewer; the device should be filled

up no more than a quarter of the way, as the ground coffee will soak up the water and expand. After about a half-minute, unscrew the second filter a couple of turns, fill the device with hot water and cover. It will take quite a long time to drain, perhaps five minutes. 3.3.5 Reversible coffee pot / flip pots / Napoletana These are comprised of four parts. One part looks like a very small pot with tall sides, a second like watering can with a large top opening; each of these parts usually has a handle. These two parts snap together, the open sides facing each other. Inside these pieces is a two-piece assembly that looks like a saltshaker. When the internal assembly is removed and its perforated lid unscrewed, a second perforated surface can be seen inside the "saltshaker," about one inch from the lip. Ground coffee is placed inside and the top screwed on; water is placed inside the pot-shaped piece, and all of the pieces are assembled. The side with the water is placed on a hot stove. When it is hot enough, water will begin to seep out of a tiny hole near the lip of the bottom piece. At this point, you flip the pot over, and the hot water will seep through the coffee into the piece with the spout. When this finishes, the top and middle portions are removed and the coffee is served. Most flip pots also come with a fifth piece: a lid that fits onto the serving unit after the coffee has been brewed. Note that the water seeping through the hole may well mean that it is boiling, so try timing things so that you flip the pot before the water boils. The Napoletana is not the only flip pot (reversible pot) that has been made, but it is the only one the average consumer will likely find these days. 3.3.6 Auto-drip The most common variant of the drip method is auto-drip; their greatest advantage is that they simplify the brewing process. Water is heated in one chamber and then piped over grounds contained in a filter; the brewed coffee then drips down into a serving carafe. These automatic machines have two prime faults: one, except for a few high-end brands, they do not make the water hot enough, so extraction occurs at sub-optimal temperatures. Secondly, the manufacturers proudly tout the machines' warming plates for keeping the coffee hot. However, continued application of heat will cause the coffee to turn bitter; a better choice is to either buy a machine with an integrated insulated carafe, or pour the coffee into a separate insulated carafe once the brewing cycle is complete. With careful research, you can find an auto-drip machine that does in fact reach proper brewing temperatures, the overall convenience arguably makes such a machine the best choice for most people. Other things to look for: good water dispersal (using a showerhead design to spread hot water over the grounds, rather than a single small spout), automatic shutoff for the warming plate (though you shouldn't use a warming plate, it's nice to have it shut off automatically if you forget about it). For autodrip machines, you have a choice between paper and metal mesh filters; the latter requires a slightly coarser grind.

3.4 Single-Serve Coffee Systems

Once confined to commercial establishments, these devices have started to make their way into homes. They are very convenient: the coffee is pre-packaged in variously

shaped containers (depending upon the machine) which are inserted into the machine, a button is pushed, and coffee comes out. The main variation here is whether the machine pre-heats an entire resevoir (lengthening the initial wait but shortening the time it then takes to brew multiple cups) or heats water on-demand (shortening the initial wait but brewing consecutive cups more slowly). Some machines have an option to brew with less water, making a stronger cup. These machines are generally akin to drip machines; although some pressure is often involved (sometimes creating a faux-crema), they are not true espresso machines since they do not achieve nearly the requisite pressure. Overall, the machines appear to be well-designed and they perform well. The weak point is the coffee itself. Since the machines use proprietary packaging, you are forced to use the manufacturer's coffeesimilar in effect to inkjet printers and their cartridges. Since the coffee has been ground and packaged months in advance, you must rely on package technology to keep the coffee from staling. As a result, products reviews have found the quality of the brewed coffee to be spotty, and the most important issue not to be the machine itself, but the prepackaged coffee that can be used with it. While the packages' freshness may not favorably compare to freshly roasted and ground coffee, they will likely equal or exceed that of ground, canned coffee. Some coffeemaker brands support a broader range of coffee options than others. And, as with inkjet cartridges, you can often use "compatible" packages, though the manufacturers obviously do not encourage this and will not repair under warranty if a third-party product causes damage. There is an "unofficial" reusable adapter for one of the pod machines, the Philips Senseo, which seems to improve brew quality, albeit at the expense of convenience that is the machine's primary selling point.

3.5 Biggin
The Oxford English Dictionary claims that this device was named after a "Mr. Biggin," though some sources surmise that the name came from the Dutch "beggelin", meaning to trickle. The first and perhaps original version was little more than a cloth bag that fit into a container, the bag's opening was held in place at the top by a metal ring. Other variants were quite elaborate; in one, a metal plate was used in conjunction with a screw device. When the top of the screw was turned, the plate would rise, compressing the bag. Another variant did away with the bag altogether, and the coffee was kept contained in metal cylinder with a perforated metal disk bottom. The screw would cause the disk to rise up in the cylinder, pulling the ground coffee out of the brewed coffee. Confusingly, certain French coffeemakers are labeled as Biggins. These devices are essentially drip pots, whereas to be labeled a Biggin, the device must operate by the steeping method: holding the coffee and water together, then isolating the spent grounds after the period concludes.

3.6 French Press / Press Pot / Cafetiere / Plunger Pot

A French press consists of two parts: a beaker-shaped container made out of glass, metal, or plastic, and a plunger, which is a multi-piece wire-mesh filter assembly

attached perpendicularly to a metal rod. Other filters may also ship with the press or be retrofitted onto them, such as finer mesh one-piece units, or nylon mesh screens to be used in conjunction with the standard filter; these serve to better remove fine sediment. Some presses are insulated; these work well for keeping the coffee hot during the steeping process. However, contrary to the manufacturers' instructions, you should pour off the coffee when it is ready and not keep in in the brewing vessel, else it will continue to steep and become bitter and over-extracted. To use a press, warm the carafe (beaker) by filling it with hot water and allowing it to sit for a minute or so while your brew water heats; the filter assembly should also be warmed by placing it into the water heating the carafe. This warming stage is optional, but will improve coffee quality, especially when brewing lesser amounts (heat absorption by the device will lower extraction temperature). Heat the brewing water as per the section on water temperature. Empty the carafe and put in the ground coffee. Common practice is to use a grind somewhat between that of auto-drip and percolator, but some people prefer to use a medium grind (similar to auto-drip) with a proportionately shorter steeping time (see below). Pour in the water and put the plunger in place but do not press it down yet; the lid, which is also part of the plunger assembly, will thereby reduce heat loss. Let it steep for about four minutes, a minute or two less if using a finer grind. In order to ensure thorough saturation, some people prefer to either stir the grounds about thirty seconds to a minute after adding the water, or, and perhaps better, add about a third of the water, wait about twenty or thirty seconds, then add the rest. If using a glass carafe, do not stir the grounds with a metal implement, as this may damage the carafe. When the time is up, push down the plunger to trap the grounds at the bottom, and pour off the coffee. If the plunger resists being pushed down, do not force it (there is anecdotal evidence that excessive pressure could cause the glass to shatter); back the plunger up and try again. If you have repeated problems pushing the plunger down, you have either ground the beans too finely, or your grinder produces excessive dust, which is choking the filter. Note that this brewing method leaves all of the coffee oils in the coffee. This will create a rich, tasty cup, but there is some medical evidence that these oils may have adverse medical effects. Some people dislike the sediment that almost inevitably occurs when using the press. Though not a fatal flaw, one issue that plagues French presses is heat loss. Pre-warming the carafe (and filter assembly) will reduce this problem, but the glass is quite thin, so the temperature of the water may drop below optimal brewing temperatures while steeping. Insulated presses will virtually eliminate heat loss; however, such presses now in production are made of either plastic or metal (stainless steel), and some users claim that this material lends an off-flavor to the coffee. Insulated fabric covers for presses, similar to tea cozies, are also available In the United States, "French press" is the most commonly used appellation, whereas cafetiere is used in parts of Europe; however, cafetiere literally means "coffeemaker," so some confusion could arise if this term is used. The term plunger pot may have negative connotations, since in the US a plunger is also a device used to open clogged plumbing.

As an interesting side note: a press can be a good indicator of a coffee's freshness. When the hot water is added, very fresh coffee will foam up significantly, and stale coffee, not at all. Like the biggin, this process is known as steeping.

3.7 Espresso
Espresso is a beverage created by forcing water at proper brewing temperatures through finely ground coffee at approximately 9 atmospheres of pressure; contrary to how it is often incorrectly described, steam does not contact the grounds. The resultant brew is quite different than coffee. While coffee is essentially a solution, espresso is at once a solution, a suspension of solids, and an emulsion. A proper espresso is capped with light-brown crema, which David Schomer, owner of Espresso Vivace, notes has been described as a "polyphasic colloidal foam." This topic is outside the scope of this document; see the Original espresso FAQ or this one.

3.8 Vacuum pot

Dating back to at least the 1830s, these devices were quite common in the 1930s through the 1950s. Though more complex forms exist, the basic principle remains the same for all of them. A lower container resembling an auto-drip machine's carafe is filled with water (hereafter, the lower bowl will be referred to as the carafe). An upper bowl, basically funnel-shaped, is put on top of the carafe, forming a seal; the funnel's tube leading down into the carafe nearly to the bottom. The top of the tube is covered by one of various designs of filters. Somewhat finely ground coffee is placed into this top bowl, then the carafe is placed onto a heat source. This can be a stovetop flame, an alcohol or butane lamp, or an electric element; if an electric stove is used, a wire trivet must be placed between the element and the carafe's bottom.If an alcohol lamp is used, it is best to pre-heat the water, due to relatively low amount of heat produced by the lamp. As the unit is heated, the increased air pressure in the otherwise sealed carafe forces the water up the tube into the top bowl, where it mixes with the ground coffee. This is not caused by steam pressure; that would indicate that the water was overheated. What might appear to be steam is simply the hot air from the lower bowl, which has followed the water it pushed up and is now bubbling vigorously through the brewing coffee in the upper bowl. When most of the water has moved to the top portion, the heat is reduced and the mixture is allowed to steep for a minute or so. The device is removed from the heat source. As the lower bowl cools its internal pressure drops precipitously, pulling the liquid down from the upper chamber--often accompanied by a loud gurgling. The heating container now doubles as the serving carafe. Because of the filter, the grounds remain behind in the top container. This process produces an excellent cup of coffee, and is certainly quite fun to watch. While most vac pot filters are made from cloth or plastic mesh, the now-discontinued Cory pots used a glass rod that fits into the top of the tube leading down to the lower bowl (the rod can also be found with some Silex pots). While effectively removing sediment, it also allows the coffee oils to remain in the brewed coffee. Cona currently

makes a version for their vac pots, and many users feel the newer version of the rod works better than the older models. Brands and places of manufacture: current manufacturers include Cona in England, Hario in Japan, Yama Glass in Taiwan, and Bodum in Denmark. Bodum currently also makes two electric models, small and large, that simplify the process. Black and Decker recently introduced a model; due to what may have been poor promotion, it was soon taken off of the market. Cory and Silex (Proctor-Silex) used to make them in the U.S.; Sunbeam once made a metal model with a built-in heating element. See here for more information. One particularly interesting model is the balancing siphon coffee maker, the only current example of which is made by coffee4you.com. Dating back to models pioneered in the 1840s, the principle is basically the same as the above versions, but the two chambers (water and coffee) are positioned side-by-side on a balance beam. The weight of the water in the heating chamber causes that side of the balance to drop while the side with the coffee grounds chamber stays up in the air. A lamp is lit under the water chamber (to which hot water was added), and the soon near-boiling water is sucked over to the coffee chamber. Since the weight is transferred to the other side, the water chamber is lifted off of the lamp, which is automatically extinguished, causing the water chamber to eventually cool and suck the finished coffee back where it is dispensed via spigot. This brewing method is closest to steeping, with the added twist of the pressure changes used to move the water.

3.9 Percolator
Originally a referent for a broader series of coffee makers (see section 3.2), the term percolator now generally refers to a specific sort of device. As defined in the United States, percolators consist of a chamber that holds the water, into which a long tube with a filter basket at the top end is placed. The filter basket is generally made of perforated metal, but many models accept paper filters. Coarsely ground coffee is placed into the filter and the water is heated, either by in integrated electric element or a stovetop burner. When the water boils, it is drawn up the tube and repeatedly passed over the grounds. That is, the brewed coffee drips back down into the hot water, and that coffee/water mix is then passed back over the grounds, over and over again. Many people become sentimental when they think about percolators, often recalling childhood memories and the smell of coffee in the air in the morning. Nostalgia aside, percolators are by far the least well-regarded of brewing methods. The water is overheated, the brew overextracted (only water should be spread over coffee grounds, not already-brewed coffee), and the percolating action dissipates the complex, volatile compounds into the atmosphere. This is why people often recall that wonderful aromas: the aromatics that should be in the coffee are instead cast off into the atmosphere.

3.10 Ibrik / cezve / briki / mbriki

"Ibrik" and "cezve" are Turkish; "briki" and "mbiki" are Greek, though the difference is largely semantic. There may well be no definitive way to prepare this product, as there are significant regional variations in traditional preparation; several alternate brewing techniques will be noted.

First, fill the ibrik approximately two-thirds full with clean, cool water (if desired, sugar can also be added at this point) and heat until hot but not yet simmering, then add very finely powdered coffee. Some customs have you add the coffee before heating. The coffee should be evenly distributed on top of the water so as to block the opening. Use approximately one tablespoon per three ounces of water; more coffee should be added if a seal is not formed. The quantity of powdered coffee is very flexible, with some people insisting that they grew up using one teaspoon per three ounces, others saying a tablespoon or even more. Regardless, a quantity sufficient to seal off the neck of the ibrik is necessary. Differing opinions regarding coffee quantity may reflect a misrecollection of the container size. The water should come nearly to a boil in a minute or two and begin to foam up through the coffee. If your coffee boils rather than foams, you may have used too little coffee or over-heated the water. When this foam rises somewhat thickly, remove the pot from the heat long enough for the foam to settle. One tradition has you immediately pour the coffee into a demitasse, making sure to cover the top with foam (and therefore not wait for it to settle before you pour). Another tradition is to repeat this foaming process one or two times with a low heat setting. The grounds should settle in the cup before drinking. Another tradition has you wait until the grounds settle in the ibrik itself, but this runs the risk of losing the foam before pouring. If you use the latter technique, you may wish to preserve the foam by scooping some into the cups before waiting for the grounds to settle. One common tradition is to mix powdered cardamom with the coffee before heating. This brewing method is known as "decoction." Grinders tend to have trouble making the powder fine enough. Turkish coffee grinders, resembling pepper grinders, are available. Many feel that the lowly whirly blade grinders work adequately, but they may overheat the coffee during the long grinding process: Turkish grind is even finer than espresso grind, almost the consistency of talcum powder. A note on boiling: it is unclear whether the water actually comes to a boil with this process, or whether the foaming is merely an effect that appears to mimic the visual appearance of boiling.

3.11 Moka pot

The moka pot is sometimes misleadingly referred to as a stovetop espresso maker. There are many variations in design for this device, but the basic function is the same. At its most basic, the moka pot consists of 3 parts: 1) a chamber at the bottom for the water. It has a threaded opening for the top (not middle) section, and a pressure relief valve. This section is almost invariably made from metal. Before using, it is filled with water to just below the relief valve; do not fill completely. 2) the middle part holds the ground coffee. It is a metal ring with a funnel attached to its bottom (all one piece); the funnel is separated from the ring by a screen, which usually spreads across the bottom of the ring before it narrows for the funnel. This component is also made of metal. This section simply drops into the lower section, and finely ground coffee is spooned in until full or slightly heaping. The grounds are not tamped.

3) The brewed coffee flows into and is poured from the top section, which has a threaded opening for the bottom section and is topped off by a lid, commonly one that flips open and closed. This component varies the most, both in shape and composition; there are also models where this section is made from clear, heat-resistant plastic, emabling the user to see the brewing coffee flowing in. The bottom of this section has a screen very similar to the one in the middle section. This screen also leads to a tube, one that points up into the upper section. The upper section gets threaded onto the bottom section, thereby slightly packing the coffee in the middle section. The assembled device is placed on the stove and the water is heated. Since the lower chamber is airtight (the funnel bottom is situated below the waterline), the expanding air pushes down on the the water and forces it up the lower tube, through the coffee and through the top tube. It spurts out of the tube (which ends near the top of the upper chamber) and drops down into the bottom of the top reservoir. The brewed coffee is them poured off. This is similar to how a vacuum pot works, except that (1) rather than mixing with the coffee and steeping, the water is forced under some pressure though the coffee, and (2) the brewed coffee remains in the top portion. A moka pot can make good quality, strong coffee. Notes: 1. Start with a somewhat coarser grind than used for drip. The trick is to allow a small amount of resistance to the water flow without creating a clog. Similarly, the coffee should not be packed, as the grounds will expand when they become wet and may otherwise clog the device. Too fine a grind may also choke the moka pot and possibly pop open the safety (pressure-relief) valve. On the other hand, if the coffee holder is not filled sufficiently, water (seeking the path of least resistance) may seek relatively empty "channels" in the coffee, thereby creating a weak brew. Make sure that there are no grounds on the lips of either the lower or middle sections, as this may prevent a tight seal. 2 . Stoves can vary; you want the water to heat in about five minutes, so a low to medium heat setting should be fine. Do not use a very high heat. Get to know your stove. 3. When the device makes a gurgling sound, remove it from the heat and it will finish brewing on its own. Do not be concerned if there is some water left in the bottom section; you would have to overheat the unit to get the last bit out. 4. It is crucial to have airspace in the bottom section; the pressure relief valve must be kept unblocked in case of a clog, to prevent the lower chamber from bursting, and the airspace is needed to help create the pressure used to push the water up. The moka pots most commonly sold in the United States are made out of aluminum. Although there are no definitive links between aluminum and adverse health effects, (see, Scientific American: Is there any proof that Alzheimer's disease is related to exposure to aluminum--for instance, by using aluminum frying pans? many people insist that aluminum imparts a metallic taste, and will thus only use a stainless steel model. Some varieties have built-in wands that dispense the brew and/or can generate steam for steaming and milk.There is at least one electric moka pot. As already noted, moka pots are sometimes referred to as stovetop espresso machines. However, these devices cannot achieve the pressure required to achieve the emulsion of oils and colloids unique to espresso; moka pots make strong coffee, but not espresso.

3.12 Cold water process

This promises to make a brew that is better tolerated by people who find that coffee upsets their stomachs. Basically, add one pound to about nine cups of cold water and store at room temperature overnight (about twelve hours). Filter and refrigerate; although refrigeration is not crucial, it will extend the usable shelf life. This makes a concentrate that is not directly drinkable. To serve, add one ounce of the concentrate to six ounces of very hot water. All of these proportions can be adjusted: use more or less water for steeping, and/or adjust dilution ratios. This coffee will be smoother and easier to drink, but it will lack the highlights and subtleties of hot-brewed coffee, since certain compounds are only extracted at the higher temperature; many will find the taste lacking. There are two brands of commercial cold water process coffee makers, by Toddy Products and Filtron, that simplify steeping and, most especially, filtering. Alternatively, you can simply use a French press for the whole process.

3.13 Microwave brewing

Distinguishable from simply heating the water in a microwave, there are various devices sold for brewing coffee in a microwave oven. These devices take various forms, but following are two examples. One device works basically like a moka pot, but made out of plastic in order to be usable in the microwave. Another design has you combine the water and ground coffee in a chamber. When the water/coffee mixture hits a certain temperature, a bimetallic strip at the bottom bends, and the coffee drips down through a filter into a lower chamber or mug. Reviews of these products have not been positive.

3.14 Instant
This is partially a preparation method, and partially a form of coffee. Instant coffee is brewed coffee that has had the water removed by some form of evaporation. First, coffee is brewed in large quantities, usually at a higher extraction rate than is normally used; a evaporative process is then used to concentrate the brew. Next, a powder is produced by one of two methods: (1) spray drying, where very fine streams of the brew are blown into hot, dry air, evaporating the water, or (2) freeze drying, where the liquid is first frozen, then placed in a vacuum, which vaporize the water through sublimation. The spray drying method is especially prone to loss of coffee essences, whish are partially captured during evaporation and added back to the powder. Various agents are often added to color the resultant powder and cause it to clump together, in order to make it resemble ground coffee. A shot of aroma is added to give the powder a desirable smell when the container is opened; however, this is deceptive, as the aroma is not inherent in the powder and will not be reflected in the brewed cup. Instant coffees often contain a very large percentage of robusta beans. Instant is the least desirable method of preparing coffee.

3.15 Filters
There are five types of filters: paper, metal, plastic, cloth, and glass.

3.15.1 Paper filters Paper filters are the most commonly encountered variety. They do the most thorough job in removing particulates, but will also absorb some of the essential oils and aromatics from the coffee. This will yield a brew with less aroma and perceived body; Chemex brand filters purport to allow the aromatic compound through. Filters are akin to copy paper in that their thicknesses can vary from brand to brand, as can their constituent fibers; as a result, their impact upon the brew's flavor will differ. These filters are disposable, with the concomitant factors of easier cleanup and increased waste and resource usage. Paper filters may also be divided into bleached and natural varieties. The natural filters can impart a taste described as wet cardboard, especially if a lower-quality brand is used. Though once bleached with chlorine, most bleached filters are now whitened with oxygen. Avoid cheap filters; in addition to possibly effecting the coffee's taste, they may clog easily, either overextracting or forcing you to use a coarser grind and thereby possibly underextracting. Paper filters are most often used with most types of drip coffee makers and with percolators. 3.15.2 Metal filters There are two quite different sorts of perforated metal filters. One sort uses relatively large holes to filter the coffee. They will allow all of the oils and aromatics through, but will also pass fine particulates into the brewed coffee. These filters are usually integrated into moka pots, Neapolitan flip pots, as well as many percolators. The other kind is the permanent metal filters sold for drip brewers (mainly auto-drip) in which the perforations, in the form of miniscule slits, are much, much finer. Most are either stainless steel or gold-plated in order to prevent off-tastes from being imparted to the coffee. They trap quite a lot of the particulates while passing the oils and aromatics, but the brew won't be quite as "clean" as with paper filters. A different type of metal filters are the woven wire mesh filters, similar to the material used for window or door screens, but the mesh is considerably finer. Again, no coffee oils or aromatics are absorbed, but a quantity of particulates may be passed through. These filters are typically used with French presses and some autodrip machines. 3.15.3 Cloth filters Cloth filters are rarely used these days, and were once used with many varieties of vacuum pots. Their absorption is similar to that of paper filters, but they can be rinsed and re-used many times. They should be very well cleaned periodically, or they may transmit off-flavors to the coffee. Cloth holders, sometimes literally socks, have been used for steeping ground coffee in hot water, and have been used in devices such as the Biggin. 3.15.4 Plastic filters These are sometimes sold with less-expensive drip machines. They do not trap oils and aromatics, and will pass sediment. Many feel that they impart an undesirable taste to the

coffee, and they do not last very long. Nylon mesh filters are also sold for French presses, either for use on their own or in conjunction with the metal mesh filters. These do not seem to cause off-tastes, and will trap more sediment than the mesh filters. Some vacuum pots also use these nylon filters. 3.15.5 Glass filters These work with many styles of vacuum pots and resemble a short glass wand; they fit into the downspout of the vacuum pot's upper bowl. They are surprisingly effective at keeping out particulates, especially the Cona models.

3.16 A final note on brewing techniques

The categorizations above are, to some degree, a simplification. Valid arguments may be proffered that the divisions are not so clear, that some brewing devices in one category are also akin to devices in a different one.

4 Storing, Grinding, and Cleaning Up 4.1 How to store coffee 4.2 Coffee grinders 4.2.1 Burr grinders versus blade grinders 4.2.2 Flat Plate Burr Grinders vs. Conical Burr Grinders 4.2.3 Manual Grinders 4.3 Cleaning coffee makers 4.3.1 Descaling 4.3.2 Removing coffee deposits stains

4.1 How to store coffee

This is a common question in online discussions about coffee, and it never fails to cause dissension. Coffee beans must be isolated from air and moisture. Probably the best storage containers are made from glass or glazed ceramic, which have the added benefit of being easily cleaned. If glass is used, the container should be kept in a dark location (if only because light is, theoretically, usually an accelerant to chemical processes); in either case, the containers must be able to maintain an air- and moisture-proof seal. Alternately, mylar/plastic bags with one-way valves can also do a fine job so long as care is taken to ensuring an airtight seal. Regardless of the container, as stated above, do not purchase more whole-bean coffee than can be consumed in approximately a week to two weeks post-roast. Beans primarily stale as a result of the loss of aromatic and volatile compounds, which occurs continually with the outgassing of carbon dioxide (see "Degassing, resting, and storage" in the section on home coffee roasting). The effects of freezing are disputed. Some feel that the freezing will damage the subtle tastes in the coffee; less disputed is that moisture will condense on the cold beans each time the container is opened. At the least, avoid repeatedly opening the freezer-stored coffee: divide up your coffee supply into multiple containers (with as little airspace as possible) and keep one container out for use, not replacing it in the freezer after it is

opened. If you do not have a local roaster, you may do well by ordering three or four pounds at a time from a mail-order roaster, dividing the order into half-pound batches, and freezing them all. Take out a pack as you need it, allow it to return to room temperature before opening, and do not refreeze. Do not store coffee in the refrigerators; they are moist, smelly places.

4.2 Coffee grinders

Grinding your own coffee is one of the best steps you can take towards a superior brew. Coffee stales quickly after it is ground; buying fresh coffee from a local roaster and having them grind it in the store largely negates the benefits of purchasing recently roasted coffee. The most commonly found grinders look like miniature blenders, and they operate by chopping up the beans with two or more sharp blades spinning at high speeds. Less common are burr grinders: the beans are placed in a hopper on top of the machine, and they feed between two metal rings (burrs) and down into a bin. One of the burrs is fixed in place and the other rotates a small distance away from it; the beans are fed into a hole in the center of the top burr and are sliced down by the burr teeth as they make their way between the two burrs to the outside, where they are ejected. Manually operated versions can be purchased, as well as the electric models. The hand-cranked models are related to flour mills, but home flour mills will not usually grind coffee well and may become clogged by the coffee oils. 4.2.1 Burr grinders versus blade grinders Blade grinders (also called "whirly blade" grinders) are not able to produce a consistent particle size: the size of the grounds in any particular batch will be quite varied. As a result, coffee extraction will be uneven, with the larger particles underextracting (producing thin, weak coffee), and the smaller particles overextracting (producing bitter coffee); this does not "even out." This problem is undesirable for brewed coffee and a fatal flaw when making espresso. Part of the problem is that the user cannot control exactly what is being ground: one bean or bean piece may be chopped into smaller and smaller pieces, while another somewhat escapes the blades. This issue may be somewhat addressed by gently shaking the grinder while it is operating. Although certainly better than using stale coffee, blade grinders are best used for spices, though they may also work acceptably for producing the talcum-powder fine grind necessary for Turkish coffee. 4.2.2 Flat Plate Burr Grinders vs. Conical Burr Grinders There are two kinds of burr grinder: 1) flat-plate, shaped like two stacked dinner plates 2) conical, like two glasses stacked one inside the other. For either type, each facing surfaces bears cutting teeth. As compared to a flat surface, a conical surface will have a greater grinding surface for a given diameter; imagine the cutting surface of a conical grinder being the hypotenuse of a right triangle, angling downwards, while the cutting surface of a flat grinder is the horizontal axis of the same triangle. The greater the angle away from the horizontal, the longer the hypotenuse (the conical burr) as compared to the side at zero degrees horizontal (the flat burr), even though the hypotenuse takes up the same horizontal distance. As a result, the conical

grinders require a lower rotational speed, since the beans will feed through a longer distance with more burr contact. That said, no conclusive results have come out of the arguments comparing the two types. However, some conclusions can be made. As always, price tends to go hand in hand with quality. The cheapest burr grindersless than $50are often little better than blade grinders. Their burrs are of lesser quality, and are often mounted in plastic carriers that do not hold the burrs rigidly, decreasing grind quality and burr life. The design and quality deficiencies of these inexpensive burr grinders do not justify their cost. When researching brands, also look into how noisy each model is; some are surprisingly quiet, some sound like outdoor gardening tools. Some machines are prone to static problems, which can cause the grounds to fly all over the place, especially when humidity levels are low. Some machines have relatively long chutes between the burr chamber and the grounds bin; these long chutes may be prone to clogging. Some machines come with dosing chambers, which are meant to make it easier to fill an espresso machine portafilter. Some people like these chambers, others hate them, but they are of little use if you are not grinding for an espresso machine. Some grinders use a worm gear to change grind fineness, for others, you rotate the top of the machine (usually, the bean hopper), effectively screwing the burrs closer together or further away. The worm gear is usually far more adjustable, but it is more difficult to repeatedly change back and forth between specific settings. 4.2.3 Manual Grinders These are essentially burr grinders without the electric motors. Some of the better quality manual grinders (many people favor the Zassenhaus) produce excellent quality grinds. The downside is effort; it takes a significant amount of grinding to produce enough for a pot of coffee. The grinding time required to produce a particular quantity increases with the fineness of the grind, and the effort needed can be exasperating for espresso drinkers.

4.3 Cleaning coffee makers

Carafes should be well-rinsed after each brewing session. This includes autodrip, French press, thermal, or any other such devices that can be safely submerged and are used to hold brewed coffeethat is, you want to wash away the remains of the brew. Be mindful if you use an autodrip machine's warming plate, as it will often bake coffee residue onto the carafe bottom; the warming plate itself should be wiped off, when cool, with a slightly damp but not wet paper towel.Certain carafes contain integrated heating devices (e.g., the Bodum electric Santos vac pots and the ChefsChoice electric French press). These should have their insides well rinsed, but cannot be submerged. Complete cleaning of coffee equipment requires separate acid and alkaline solutions. Acids (vinegar, citric acid) are necessary for cleaning mineral deposits, while a base (baking soda, most detergents) helps clean the weakly acidic coffee deposits. Common sense dictates that you not immerse electrical equipment. As touched upon above, "cordless" electric carafes only contain part of their circuity inside their base.

The rest is in the bottom of the water chamber, which therefore cannot be immersed, nor should its outside be allowed to get wet. Note that special care is needed for espresso machines; see the particular machine's manual for this information. 4.3.1 Descaling Most auto-drip coffee makers require periodic descaling with a solution of water and vinegar. The brew water contains dissolved minerals that will come out of solution and coat the heating elements and other parts of the machine. If allowed to build up, this coating will impair the efficiency of the heating element. Vinegar will dissolve these minerals; cleaning solutions or powders are often sold for this purpose, but they are often little more than citric acid or a similar weak food-grade acid; their main advantage is that they don't have vinegar's strong odor or taste, so you are less likely to contaminate the following batch or two of coffee. Run the descaling solution through the machine as you would water if you were brewing coffee (without using grounds, of course). After you do so, run several batches of clean water through the machine especially if using vingar. Periodic descaling is necessary for whatever components heats mineral-bearing water; this includes electric kettles. The frequency depends upon the mineral content of the brewing water and how often you use the equipment, but is rarely more than once every few months. Descaling is rarely neccessary for components that do not themselves heat water (e.g., standard French presses). 4.3.2 Removing coffee stains Approximately every two weeks, all equipment that comes in contact with brewed coffee should be cleaned with hot water and a very small amount of detergent (these are usually alkaline, though the degree will vary by brand). Coffee oils cannot adequately be removed with water alone; nevertheless, failure to rinse after each use will necessitate more frequent cleaning with detergant. Most brands of detergent generate of lot of suds, so use only a few drops per pint of water or you will have to do a lot of rinsing; likewise, since the taste of detergant is generally more tenacious that vinegar, it is vital that you thoroughly rinse the items. Cleaning efficacy can be increased by adding a few teaspoons of baking soda (not baking powder), thereby boosting alkalinity; in many or even most instances, baking soda alone will suffice and make rinsing simpler. Items that can be fully submerged should be, otherwise, fill the carafe with the solution. Allow to soak for fifteen to twenty minutes and rinse thoroughly. Extremely dirty items may require long soaks (several hours or overnight) in the alkaline solution, rinsed, and perhaps followed by one or more shorter soaks. The new oxygen-based cleaners work wonderfully for cleaning off coffee stains, especially from cloth filters, but they can stain or damage plastic and aluminum surfaces and may damage fine-mesh metal filters (especially if old and worn). Only those items that come directly in contact with brewed coffee need to be cleaned this way. The water heating chamber of an autodrip machine, for example, only needs

to be descaledand since it cannot easily be rinsed out, adding detergant to one is not only unnecessary, it'll cause no end of frustration from soapy-tasting coffee.

5 Roasting Coffee at Home 5.1 Why roast at home? 5.2 What do I use to roast? 5.2.1 Commercially-made home coffee roasters 5.2.2 Notes about roasting 5.3 About green beans 5.3.1 Storing green beans 5.4 What is the process? 5.4.1 What's the Maillard reaction? 5.5 Degassing, resting, and storage

5.1 Why roast at home?

a) This FAQ has repeatedly stressed the importance of bean freshness. Coffee stales quickly; overall, you want beans that were roasted anywhere from one day to about a week and a half latertwo weeks if unground and stored properly. Home roasting is an excellent option if you do not have access to freshly roasted beans. b) A starter home roasting setup can be had for as little as five dollars (in the form of a used hot air popcorn popper from a thrift store), or twenty-five dollars for a better setup using a new popper and a outdoor grill-type thermometer. Green beans typically sell for quite a bit less than quality roasted beans (often, three to six dollars a pound, averaging somewhere in the four dollar range).If you graduate to a dedicated roasting device, the price can leap to a hundred-twenty to a hundred fifty (and up), but amortizing that cost over the roaster's life and coupled with the lower bean price, you will at the very least break even. b) Under reasonably proper conditions, green beans can be stored up to at least a year without a loss of quality, allowing you to keep multiple varieties on hand. These can be mixed and matched to create custom blends, or simply sampled country-by-country. Since green beans can be held in stock for so long, some retailers offer a far larger variety of beans than those selling roasted beans, even a few dozen or more countries and multiple varieties from each nation. c) Even with basic experience, you can get better quality coffee than the stale beans you've grown used to; many new home roasters are amazed at the quality of their coffee even after one or two roasts. More importantly, you can learn to roast your coffee exactly how you like it: to what degree and with what blends.

5.2 What do I use to roast?

Regardless of the method chosen, be aware that roasting produces significant quantities

of odorous smoke, which increases with degree of roast, as well as fine chaff that has a tendency to fly all over the place. At its most basic, you can roast coffee beans in a skillet or wok, constantly mixing to prevent burning. However, this is a somewhat tricky practice, and it is difficult to produce consistent results. A modified version of this technique is to use an oldfashioned stovetop corn popper, which basically consists of a deep saucepan topped by a lid fitted with a stirring paddle turned by a handle. Like the basic stovetop method, the popper requires that you continually stir the coffee as it roasts. Many people have successfully used convection ovens. Note that due to their round shape, peaberries are easier to use with these manually-stirred methods. Perhaps the most commonly used item not specifically designed for roasting is an hot air popcorn popper. These devices are easily found and inexpensive; some home roasters scour thrift or charity shops for favored models, or just to be able to buy them for a few dollars apiece. Three to four ounces of green beans (by weight) are poured into the popper, which is then turned on. The beans should start moving around, though some manual stirring may be needed until they begin to lose moisture and are able to move on their own. The beans will pass through the various stages of roasting, as described below. Just before the desired degree of roast is reached, pour the beans into a metal sieve or colander and toss between two sieves to cool. Alternately, pour them out onto a large, heavy cookie sheet; it will help if you can pre-chill the sheet. With either method, a fine spray of water may be used to speed cooling, though many eschew wetting roasted coffee.The water must be used sparingly: you want it to evaporate immediately and not remain on the beans, so a couple of quick sprays with a mister will suffice. You can vary the roasting profile by varying the quantity of beans you roast: the more beans you use, the darker the roastmore specifically, the faster the beans will roast. If you mount a grill thermometer so that the tip sits in the beans during the roast, you will be enable to more finely control the degree of roast and consistency between batches; using a timer will also further these goals. The thermometer must be able to read up to 500 degrees (though coffee roasted to that upper limit will be charcoal). The standard recommendation is to use a popper that feeds the hot air in from vents on the side of the popping chamber rather than the bottom, for fear that debris that falls down through the vent holes may catch on fire. This may in fact be an erroneous fear, but since following the recommendation costs nothing, it may be best to heed this warning. 5.2.1 Commercially made home coffee roasters The most common home roasters, as well as the hot air poppers, are known as fluid bed roasters, since they roast on a "bed" of hot fluid: air. The basic principle is the same as the popcorn popper, i.e., blowing hot air up through the beans, but they have built in timers, a cooling cycle that automatically cuts in after the roast, and a chaff collection device at the top. Current models include the Hearthware i-Roast 2, the Fresh Roast Plus 8, and the Zach & Dani roaster. The iRoast is the newest of the roasters, and the most programmable of the lower-cost consumer models. Almost as new is the Zach & Dani roaster, and its most revolutionary aspect is that it appears to have addressed the smoke issue with a built-in catalytic converter. Although it adds a mixing auger, it is

basically a fluid bed roaster. The Fresh Roast Plus and Caff Rosto are popular models with their own advantages and disadvantages. The Alpenrst by Swissmar uses a fundamentally different method of operation. Rather than using hot air, the Alp (as it is often called) uses an electric element to heat a rotating drum that holds the beans. Many pundits assert that drum roasters produce a roast with more body than is possible with a fluid bed roaster. The Alp also roasts up to twice as much as the other devicesup to a half-pound at a time. At the time of this writing, the Alp is no longer made. There are two "prosumer" drum roasters currently in production. One is the HotTop, made in Taiwan. It resembles a miniature commercial drum roaster; March 2007 model prices are US$980 (older models are hundreds less). The other is the Gene Cafe, which typically sells for US$495. The implication of the prosumer devices is that the roasting process is now automated; however, although much of the work has in fact been reduced, it still very important that the user monitor the process. These machines are affected by too many variables ambient temperature, line voltage, difference in the beans themselvesto the extent that a specifically desired result cannot be taken for granted. There are some discontinued roasters that still popup in online marketplaces, in thrift stores, or "brick and mortar" warehouse-type stores.. The Hearthware Precision, actually a successor to the Gourmet, was one of the biggest sellers, but was many users experienced reliability issues. West Bend, perhaps inspired by the use of their popcorn makers by coffee roasters, brought out a roaster that was almost immediately discontinued, so the available information on this machine is limited. In the mid 1980s, Melitta sold the Aromaroast, but this machine was finicky at best and often could not raise the beans to roasting temperatures without user ingenuity. The Aromaroast sometimes turns up for sale, but it is best avoided. Unimax (later Royal Max) sold an expensive half-pound roaster, but the company has folded. The Caff Rosto was a machine that produced coffee praised for its body, but was often described as being overly sensitive to household current fluctuations. Rotisserie-style drum roasters, made to be fitted to outdoor grills, can be found online, and many home roasters configure their own from off-the-shelf parts. These devices can roast a pound or two at a time. 5.2.2 Notes about roasting One of the largest drawbacks of the home roasting devices is that they produce smoke; often enough to set off smoke detectors throughout the home. As such, it is imperative that you either roast outdoors during warmer temperatures, or use adequate, fanpowered venting to the outdoors during cooler weather. Range top hoods may be effective, but they must draw sufficient air, and the roaster may need to be raised up closer to the hood. The higher the capacity of the roaster, the more smoke it'll produce. With any method, chaff is an issue. Chaff is a light, thin "skin" that covers the processed, unroasted beans. During the roasting procedure, it separates from the bean and becomes a light, delicate nuisance. A popper will blow it out onto whatever surface or container sits outside of its vent mouth. A home roaster will have a chaff collector

built in which, like a dryer's lint collector, needs to be emptied after each use. Inadequate chaff removal plagues many home roasting devices; since the chaff will give your brewed coffee a grassy taste, you should try to make sure that as much chaff is removed as possible. This may involve pouring the beans back and forth between colanders, or fiddling with the roaster's cooling cycle. The total roasting process takes from 5 to about 25 minutes depending on the type of machine, with the popcorn roasters normally taking the shortest time and yielding a more acidic, brighter-tasting cup with less body than the other methods.

5.3 About green beans

The simplest way to purchase green beans is to look for a local roaster; many will be happy to sell you unroasted beans. Unroasted beans should be anywhere from fifteen to forty percent less expensive than roasted beans. If the retailer charges the same price for green that they do for roasted coffee, go somewhere elseyou're being taken advantage of, considering the seller's savings on roasting costs and the weight loss inherent in roasting (almost twenty percent of what they're selling you is water, so your pound of green coffee will translate into about thirteen ounces roasted). There are various sources on the Internet for unroasted coffee, and many have an almost awe-inspiring selection. Checking the alt.coffee archives for names of mail-order roasters will be quite fruitful; some companies have made names for themselves by virtue of the excellent quality of their beans. There is little point in going through the effort of home roasting if you purchase inferior beans. Sometimes, unscrupulous distributors or retailers will substitute cheaper beans for more expensive or hard to acquire varieties, so a reputable dealer is important. Look for suppliers with specific designation of origin: for example, "Ethiopian Harar" or "Ethiopian Sidamo" rather than just "Ethiopian." Even better, some suppliers will tell you the farm or estate on which it was grown, or the name of the importer. This will enable you to more effectively compare beans, and may also indicate a retailer with respect for his customer and dedication to the product. The trick with green beans is that even the products of a specific farm can change from year to year, largely depending on reasons from that year's weather. Retailers who provide "cupping" reviews of individual offerings are particularly helpful, and they may note that the newest crop from a particular estate has changed from the previous crop; perhaps it's better, maybe worse, or maybe just different. 5.3.1 Storing green beans Processors and importers store their unroasted beans in cloth (or plastic mesh) bags in cool, dry, and dark locations, with good air circulation. Storing unroasted coffee in airtight plastic is a special issue. Unroasted coffee does best in moderate humidity, mild temperatures, and ventilated storage conditions. If you have these conditions, then storing the beans in breathable containers should work well. However, sealing the beans in airtight plastic may well be superior to exposing them to humid storage conditions, especially if you are able to vacuum seal the container. For general conditions, the average person should be able to simply store their green beans in airtight plastic.

5.4 What is the process?

Unroasted beans are generally light green, although monsooned and decaffeinated beans will have different colors. After the first few minutes of roasting, the beans begin to turn yellow, then a very light brown. When bean temperature approaches 380 degrees Fahrenheit, first crack occurs, so called because various structural changes cause the beans to make a sound similar to that of corn popping. It is at this point that the beans begin to be usable for brewing coffee, but the taste will be poor. First crack continues for approximately a minute (or longer, with large drum roasters), and chaff begins to separate from the bean. The beans will continue to darken as the sugars caramelize, passing through roast degrees common for commercially distributed coffee in North America. When the bean temperature reaches about 435 degrees Fahrenheit, second crack occurs, similar to the sound made by Rice Krispies after milk is added. At this point, oily patches will become discernable on the bean surface and, mainly when using poppers, small discs (homeroasters often refer to these as "divots") will begin to fly off of the bean surface. As roasting continues, the beans will become darker, and the their surface oilier. Coffee at these advanced stages is typically used for espresso, and for brewed coffee in Italy and France. Bean temperatures around 480 degrees Fahrenheit represent the upper end at which coffee is palatable, and even before that, it will be too dark for many people. Until you can readily judge bean color, keep a sample of your target roast handy, for comparison purposes. Keep in mind that ground coffee will have a somewhat different color than whole bean. The beans lose up to twenty percent of their weight upon roasting, due to the loss of moisture. However, they also expand, so the now-lighter batch will take up a greater volume. 5.4.1 What's the Maillard reaction? Distinct from caramelization, this refers to a non-enzymatic browning caused by a reaction of simple sugars and amino acids. With first crack, the bean actually undergoes an exothermic reaction (it gives off more heat than it takes in). This step is crucial in the production of desirable flavor and aroma compounds. 5.5 Degassing, resting, and storage Roasted beans give off a considerable quantity of carbon dioxide in the day following roasting; this emission continues at a reduced level over the next two or so weeks. This can serve as an indicator of bean freshness: just-roasted beans will create a goodly quantity of froth in a cafetiere, whereas stale beans will create almost none. In the coffee trade, this particular froth is called "bloom." Roasted beans are at their best anywhere starting from four to twenty-four hours after roasting, depending largely upon the variety of the bean and the degree of roast. Some varieties, notably espresso blends, are at their best thirty-six to forty-eight hours after roasting. This process (holding off on brewing for a specific period) is usually called "resting." The mylar/plastic bags with one-way valves are one favored method of storage for resting; some home roasters have rigged-up jars with one-way valves. At least in theory, tightly sealed containers without valves may deform or shatter as a result of the buildup of gas pressure.

The beans should be kept away from oxygen; the degassing process will help protect the beans from oxygen. If you roast in smaller quantities, you can keep several batches available at once, optimized for different purposes, such as regular for the morning, a decaf for evenings, and an espresso batch.
THE COFFEE First, and most obvious, start with good quality coffee. Coffee beans are defined by two general botanical types: Arabica, being the older and premium type, and Robusta, generally a lesser bean frequently used in commercial blends and for manufacturing instant coffees. It's the Arabicas that will consistently give you the best cup. Several growing factors affect the flavor of the beans, producing distinctive properties, but the way in which they are roasted can have an even greater effect on their flavor. For the most part, lightly roasted coffees are lighter tasting and darker roasts are stronger, richer and more full flavored. Some coffees taste better when lightly roasted and others when they are more darkly roasted, and an experienced coffee supplier can take full advantage of the beans' traits in the roasting process. Though not yet standardized, the following is the basic Roast Terminology: Cinnamon - A relatively light roast, resulting in a light-tasting cup. City or Full - America's favorite roast, a nice brown color. Viennese - Long a favorite in Western US, it's the up and coming favorite in the rest of the country. Some oil will show on the beans. The result is a fuller flavor in the cup. Italian - A nice dark, oily brown, usually used in making American espresso drinks. Somewhat bitter for most regular coffee drinkers. French - The darkest roast, a very dark, oily brown, favored in espresso drinks. During the roasting process, fine coffees can be enhanced with nuts, chocolates, cinnamon and other exciting flavors to provide you with unique combinations. Look for all-natural ingredients; many imitators do use chemical flavorings, but once you have tasted natural flavors, you will easily distinguish the difference. Flavored coffees are especially good following dinner for a rich, flavorful and low-cal dessert. Roasting at home certainly guarantees that you'll have the freshest possible coffee. Some do it in a frying pan on the stove, others in the oven, and still others use special roasting kits and machines. For best flavor, freshly roasted beans should sit for a day before grinding and brewing. Green (unroasted) coffee beans last a few years if kept in a dark, dry place. And they can be roasted to any degree of darkness desired. Although results from home roasting are generally not as uniform as those from professional roasters, nevertheless many find the process a rewarding one for their taste buds and their olfactory senses. Blends are very important in gratifying specific tastes and in balancing qualities inherent in different beans. The most popular marriage, Mocha-Java, combines sharp, distinctive Yemen Mocha with smooth, rich Indonesian Java, providing the best of two worlds. Feel free to ask for a custom blend or to make a special mix to your taste and we'll maintain a record of your choice; how about trying a blend that encompasses the aroma of Kona with the full-bodied taste of Sumatra Mandheling? If you need or prefer to limit your caffeine intake, or when it comes to drinking coffee later in the day, you might consider decaffeinated coffees. A good decaf will taste as good as the real thing. Because of our interest in quality foods, we pioneered the sale of Swiss Water Processed decafs in our area. There are other effective decaffeination methods, but health concerns over minute chemical traces lead us to select the Swiss health-conscious process for virtually all our decaffeinated coffee selections. Don't confuse it with chemical processes that

add water and call themselves water process. The regular process of decaffeination leaves only the most minute traces of carcinogenic chemicals. Though these traces have been deemed safe, nevertheless we still prefer the added safety of the Swiss Water Process. The studies that have been surfacing on the health characteristics of coffee have been many and frequently contradictory. Generally, there is much to be said about moderation in how well your body and mind will react to the coffee you consume. And if you're at all worried about agricultural pesticides and chemicals that may be used in growing coffee, look for certified organically grown varieties. We do not recommend the consumption of regular coffee when pregnancy or heart disease might be present. Consult with your doctor to determine the right levels of coffee consumption for you. What about descriptive coffee terminology? Flavor refers to your sensory experience and includes terms such as winey, spicy, floral, nutty, smoky, etc. Acidity refers to sharp taste of the coffee; less acidity means more mildness, and lack of acidity results in a cup that tastes flat. Body refers to the coffee's texture, such as syrupy, heavy, light, etc. Labels describing coffees should contain all these terms, but remember that individual tastes do vary, so let your experience be the best judge. Coffee begins to deteriorate right after the roasting process, so you may want to examine and smell the coffee beans before you decide on your purchase. Look for some oil on the surface of the more darkly roasted beans, and check for steady customer traffic to ensure quick turnover and thus fresher beans. For maximum freshness, buy only the amount of fresh roasted coffee beans that you will be using within 2 to 4 weeks; the shorter the storage time, the fresher the coffee. If you use the coffee within 2 weeks, you can store it in an airtight glass or ceramic jar, away from heat and sunlight. Otherwise, place the airtight container in the fridge. You can store coffee in the freezer for a longer period of time, in airtight glass or ceramic jars. Separate larger quantities of coffee into multiple smaller jars, filled to the top. When you're ready to use a jar of frozen coffee, allow it to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation, then store in refrigerator or in a cool place in your kitchen, away from direct sunlight. After you have selected the right fresh coffee, it must be ground to suit your coffeemaker. You can have it ground at the store or, better yet, grind your own in seconds at home as you need it, so that it is absolutely fresh and allows the wonderful aroma to contribute to your enjoyment of its taste. This is especially true with the volatile essences given to flavored coffees. There are two basic types of home coffee grinders. One works with blades and is less expensive, but because it does not grind beans uniformly, it is generally best for use with manual and automatic drip coffeemakers with paper filters. The other type has burrs, like commercial grinders, that grind more uniformly and are thus suited for use with any type of coffeemaker. If, however, you need powder-fine coffee for use in making Turkish coffee, there is a grinder specifically for this purpose.

Top

THE COFFEEMAKER Next, you need to select a method of preparation, some of which we discuss here. Each has distinctive traits, which can make one or more of them best suited to your taste and lifestyle. The Percolator is one of the most familiar methods of brewing coffee. It works by filtering boiling water through the coffee grounds over and over. Many people still enjoy this old favorite, especially when it is used with very mild coffees. Unfortunately, because of the prolonged over-boiling, this method tends to release bitterness in the coffee, masking the distinct flavors and tastier blends. The convenient Automatic Drip brewing method is designed to take much of the guesswork out of making coffee. Simply by pouring cold water into a reservoir, the machine heats it to the correct temperature and pulses it through the ground coffee that rests in a filter. A valuable feature on some models is a switch that slows the pulsing of water to permit a rich brew even when you are only making a couple of cups. In better-make coffeemakers, look for outstanding reliability, sensible features, good design and, most important, the proper brewing temperature, which very few brands achieve. Major consumer magazines bear out that many brands may be inexpensive, but the coffee they make is not likely to be as consistently hot or taste as rich. Of the Manual Drip coffeemakers, the two most popular types are the Chemex and the Melitta. Both utilize a paper filter cone similar to that of Automatic Drip coffeemakers. Chemex paper filters are four times heavier and come to a point, making it more effective in that all the water is made to travel through all the grounds, rather than down the sides of the filter. Water is heated separately and is poured directly over the grounds, first only a small amount, to allow the coffee to "bloom" (that is, to open up and release its flavors), before pouring the balance of the water over it to drip through. Coffee Filters keep grounds out of the brew. All Paper Filters keep some of the strong flavors from getting through and are ideal for those who desire a smooth, "clean-tasting" cup of coffee. Gold, Gold-Tone, Stainless and Nylon Filters allow more of the coffee's flavor and body to emerge because their porosity is much greater than that of paper filters. Expect some minute grounds to come through as well. Plunger Pots, also popularly known as French Press coffeemakers, are the hottest growing method of brewing for several good reasons. These versatile brewers are frequently used at professional coffee tastings because they are as close to a perfect way of making coffee as there exists. Because the Plunger Pot, unlike other methods, allows full contact between coffee and water, it extracts more of the rich flavors. Another advantage is that you are in control in bringing the water to its proper temperature, just below boiling, for a hot cup and full extraction. Plunger Pots come in a variety of sizes and styles with a wide range of prices. They utilize a tempered glass beaker or carafe and a stainless or nylon filter/plunger. Simply place ground coffee and hot water into the beaker, stir once and set aside to steep. You control the strength by controlling the steeping time, 3 to 5 minutes. When the optimal time has elapsed, the plunger is slowly pushed down, pressing the filter screen through the mixture and holding most of the grounds securely at the bottom of the beaker as you pour your fresh, hot coffee. For those who might drink less coffee but definitely prefer a stronger, more flavorful and

intense cup, there are Espresso and Cappuccino makers. The best cup is usually made with electric makers that utilize an internal pump, and that are plumbed to a water supply or that contain a cold water reservoir for unlimited coffee production. For espresso, only a small amount of water is automatically drawn, heated, and pumped through the coffee grounds at very high pressure. This extracts the essence, richness and intensity of the coffee. When properly made, a cup of espresso actually has a golden foam, called crema, on top. These units also quickly produce cappuccino, cafe au lait, hot chocolate, tea and other hot beverages. Cappuccino is espresso coffee topped with frothed milk. For best frothing results, use a small, cold stainless or ceramic pitcher containing only a small amount of milk. For the novice, skim milk will work best. Place the tip of the steaming tube just below the surface of the milk, turn on the steam, and allow the milk to aerate by swirling about the bottom of the pitcher. If you manage to at least double the volume of milk with froth, you did well. The many stovetop units and inexpensive plastic plug-ins on the market are not, by their nature, true Espresso machines, but clever adaptations. This type is called Macchinetta (mah-key-net-tah), a relatively inexpensive, traditional coffeemaker that delivers coffee by boiling water and creating enough steam pressure to climb through the grounds. The higher water temperature causes the cup to be strong but somewhat thin and bitter, by comparison to espresso produced by the pump variety of machines. The Cold Water Method of coffee preparation is preferred by drinkers who cannot normally tolerate the acidity in coffee. With the Toddy Coffeemaker, a pound of coarsely ground coffee is allowed to steep in water overnight, then is filtered into a carafe. The resulting concentrate is mixed with water to taste and heated when ready to serve. The lack of acidity makes its taste quite different from brewed coffee, and many have come to enjoy this method of preparation. Turkish coffee refers to both the grind and preparation of this Middle Eastern favorite. Ground almost to a powder, and with equal parts of sugar, it is boiled in water several times, until it becomes almost syrupy in texture. The froth is served between boils. It is usually drunk in small cups that also contain some of the grounds, which, if drunk delicately, remain at the bottom of the cup. The coffee maker used is called an ibrik, or cezve, or jezve. (The popular, slender Turkish Coffee Mill is often used as a pepper mill.) Vacuum coffeemakers are a delight to watch as they brew the most wonderful tasting coffee. Consisting of two carafes, the bottom one holds the water and the top one the coffee grounds. When the bottom is heated, the water is forced to the top, where it steeps with the coffee. Turning off the heat source after a couple minutes of steeping forces the "filtered" coffee back to the bottom, from whence it is served. A great show to watch. The Neapolitan (Napoletana) coffeemaker is one of the more traditional drip coffeemakers. Water is placed in the part without a spout, and coffee in the special filter that fits in this part. When a bit of steam comes out of the spout, turn off the heat and turn the coffeemaker upside down. The hot water will slowly drip down to the part with the spout. Remove the top part that holds the coffee, and serve. Microwave coffeemakers are not very popular, these days, but they are very cleverly made, so that the coffee does not cook separately from the water. Depending on the unit, either the coffee is held in an airtight part of the coffeemaker, or it is added to the water itself. For a small quantity of coffee, this is one of the quickest methods of brewing.

The Coffee Sock is usually made of cotton and looks like a sock. Simply put the coffee inside it and infuse in hot water. (In a pinch, you can even use your own socks.) This method seems to be preferred in South American countries. Coffee Boilers are in just about every Western movie I've ever seen. Dump some coffee in with the water, cook it 'til it boils, then heat your innards with it. This simplest and fastest preparation, however, tends to be really bitter. If you have trouble frothing milk for lattes and cappuccinos, try furiously whisking heated milk, or, better yet, use one of the new frothers now available. They are very similar to Plunger Pots and made of heatproof glass, so you can microwave the milk in it, then use the plunger to vigorously aerate the milk. Of course, there are other types of frothers available, too; some are electric, others look like a macchinetta with a steam wand, or a wand coming out of a cork made to plug the pourer on your water kettle, and still others that look as different as the imagination can conjure. But if you haven't mastered the wand from your espresso maker, the glass frother will be easiest to use. One last bit of important information. If you like to use a large cup or mug, consider capacity when choosing the size of the coffeemaker you wish to purchase. You need to realize that most Percolators and Drip Coffeemakers generally measure each cup to contain only 5 to 6 ounces. Plunger Pot coffee and Espresso is generally is made in 1.5 to 3 ounces per serving because of its strength and richness; hence the small size of espresso cups, too. Cups for cappuccino or Caffe Latte are, of course, larger to accommodate the added ingredients. We are happy to make recommendations that flatter your taste buds. If ever you are not happy with the taste, or any other quality, of our coffees, we guarantee a refund or replacement. Enjoy!

Ethiopian "coffee ceremony" serving pot.

(Additional reading)
Top

LEGENDS & REALITY As the old legend goes, ever since a young Arabian herder took notice of his goats' frisky play after chewing on a strange-looking shrub, we have known about coffee. Unfortunately, today many people make coffee that tastes about the same as what that goat herder probably tasted as he, too, chewed the berries of the wild coffee plant. At Fante's we have been striving to enlighten our customers since Domenico Fante opened the doors in 1906. And today our family business has developed into one of the most highly lauded

gourmet stores in the world. Since 1981, we are proud to sell our freshly roasted coffee in our nationally acclaimed retail stores and by telephone and mail order. And we are best noted for our exhaustive selection of coffee brewing products, our conscientious service and our friendly expertise. There are several secrets to making a consistently good cup of coffee, and, unless you know them, you may truly be missing a satisfying experience. This brochure shares some of our secrets and experience, so that you, too, can enjoy the world's second most traded commodity: coffee. You can read about Fante's coffees and coffee equipment in source books such as Kenneth David's Coffee (101 Productions, Publisher) and Corby Kummer's The Joy of Coffee (Chapters, Publisher). We heartily recommend these wonderful guides for greater enjoyment of this most popular beverage. At Fante's we are happy to answer your questions and ready to provide you with everything you need to make the perfect cup of coffee. And we absolutely guarantee your satisfaction!
Top

FANTE'S TOP TIPS The flavor of coffee comes from its volatile oils, so you may wish to heed these guidelines to guard against the enemies of coffee: air, light, heat and moisture. 1. Purchase only the quantity of coffee that you expect to use within 2 to 4 weeks. Keep in mind that coffee from mass merchants and many coffee shops may not have been freshly roasted and may already be that old. 2. For storage, we recommend airtight glass, ceramic or stainless jars or canisters, kept refrigerated for fresh results. On the counter, away from direct sunlight and heat, is ok for up to 2 weeks. 3. Longer storage, more than 4 weeks, is not recommended. If you must, however, we recommend you fill small airtight glass, ceramic or stainless jars with the beans, and store them in the freezer. 4. Grinding coffee beans yourself helps to preserve their freshness, and the aroma of freshly ground coffee contributes to your enjoyment of its taste. Be sure to always grind coffee beans to a consistent size. 5. Because brewed coffee is more than 95% water, be sure that the water you use tastes good to you. Filtered or bottled water may be better than your tap water. 6. Always start with fresh, cold water. And when heating it for use in manual coffeemakers, use it when the boil bubbles start to rise. 7. Measure water and coffee accurately and consistently. Experiment starting with 1 tablespoon of coffee for each cup of manual or auto drip coffee.

8. Keep coffee covered on a warming plate for serving within 20 minutes. Store coffee in a thermal carafe to keep it hot for a longer period of time. Thermal carafes are also useful when you need to make more than one pot of coffee and need to keep it fresh. Reheating breaks down coffee and makes it bitter. 9. To keep your coffeemaker in good condition and to obtain consistently good results from it, keep it clean following the manufacturer's instructions and using a recommended cleaner on a regular basis.

Top

STUDIES OF SUSTAINABLE COFFEE

State of Sustainable Coffee: A study of twelve major markets Executive Summary, 23 Pages, 2003 By Daniele Giovannucci (www.dgiovannucci.net) PDF File - 168 KB Contents: -What are sustainable coffees? -The importance of sustainable coffee -European and Japanese markets overview -Trends in European and Japanese markets -Perceptions -Challenges State of Sustainable Coffee: A study of twelve major markets Complete text, 198 Pages, Copyright 2003 By Daniele Giovannucci with Freek Jan Koekoek (www.dgiovannucci.net) PDF File - 4809 KB Sustainable Coffee Survey of the North American Specialty Coffee Industry 32 Pages, July 2001 By Daniele Giovannucci (www.dgiovannucci.net) PDF File - 446 KB Conducted for The Summit Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Specialty Coffee Association of America, and The World Bank Contents: -Awareness of sustainable coffee -Availability of sustainable coffee -Price premiums -Important attributes for buying/selling sustainable coffee -Which sustainable coffees firms sell -U.S. and Canadian primary geographic markets for sustainable coffee -Source countries for sustainable coffee -Factors that make sustainable coffee valuable to business -Certification -Sustainable coffee volume and sales -Canadian variations -Future trends -Constraints and opportunities for sustainable coffees

Additional publications on coffee sustainability may be found at: www.dgiovannucci.net/publications.htm Daniele Giovannucci is the co-founder (2005) and Acting Executive Director of the Committee on Sustainability Assessment (COSA)