You are on page 1of 33

Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

(based on H.Heywood Internal combustion engine fundamentals and DieselNet website)

6.1

Complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels

The vast majority of road transport in the world is powered by either gasoline (petrol) or diesel fuel. Both of these fuels are derived from crude oil by using several refining processes including distillation, reforming, cracking, polymerization and blending of different compounds coming from different refining streams etc. Regarding the chemical structure of gasoline and diesel fuel, both of them have two elements in common: they both consist of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and are thus called hydrocarbon (HC) fuels. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, some of the so-called reformulated gasolines also contain small amounts (typically about 2 mass-%) of oxygen (O2). The chemical composition of reformulated gasolines has been especially selected to cause as low an impact as possible on the environment. Fuels containing oxygen are also sometimes referred to as oxygenated fuels. Oxygen in the fuel makes the combustion take place more effectively, especially under certain conditions. From a theoretical point of view, it is not of great importance for the reactions taking place, whether part of the oxygen needed for combustion originates in the fuel or in the ambient air. When the carbon (C) fraction of hydrocarbon fuel is combusted, the end product is carbon dioxide (CO2). When the hydrogen (H) fraction of the fuel is combusted, the end product is water (H2O). The following equations show the reactions: C + O2 CO2 2H2 + O2 2H2O The end products of the complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels (CO 2 and H2O) were for a long time considered as totally harmless, since they are not toxic. However, recent findings have revealed that carbon dioxide is the main contributor to the increase in the greenhouse effect, causing global warming and climate change. Controlling CO 2 emissions and climate change will probably be one of the greatest challenges ever faced by mankind.

59

Internal combustion engines

6.2

Real-world combustion products

In real conditions; that is, in the combustion chambers of engines, the process of combustion is usually incomplete. This leads to the formation of unwanted components, in addition to carbon dioxide and water, which affect air quality and cause harm both to human health and to the environment. The most important of these unwanted emission components (also called air quality emissions), are carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). Of these four, particulates are solid, whereas the others are gaseous. These four compounds are referred to as the regulated emissions, since the emission legislation sets limit values to these components. Under current European emission legislation, CO, HC and NOx are regulated for gasoline powered vehicles, while all four are regulated for diesel vehicles and engines. In addition to the regulated components, the research literature on emissions also recognizes the term unregulated emissions. This refers to emission components which cause concern but are not regulated by the legislation. This group includes, for example, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, aldehydes and ultra-fine particulates.

Regulated emissions Unregulated emissions

Tailpipe emission compouns regulated by legislation (CO, HC, NOX and PM). Also referred to as air quality emissions (to differentiate from CO2) Compounds not generally regulated by legislation, but whose detrimental properties are of interest among scientists. (E.g. benzene, 1,3-butadiene, aldehydes, fine particulates)

Mostly local or regional problem

Greenhouse gas emissions

- Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Methane (CH4) - CFC compounds - Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Global problem

Fig. 6.1. Division of different emission compounds

As mentioned above, CO2 has to be considered as a harmful emission component because of its properties related to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Other emission components contributing to this problem are, for example, methane (CH4), the so-called CFC
60

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

compounds (containing chlorine, fluoride and carbon) and nitrous oxide (N 2O), whose popular name is laughing gas). These compounds, as a group, are referred to as greenhouse gases (GHG). Unlike regulated or unregulated emissions, which mostly affect the vicinity of the emission source only (locally or regionally), the GHG emissions affect the whole atmosphere regardless of the location of the emission source. The division between the three different groups of emission compounds as described above is illustrated in Figure 6.1. In the following four sections, each of the regulated emission components will be discussed separately. 6.2.1 Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is the product of incomplete combustion. It consists of a carbon atom and an oxygen atom linked together. Usually it is formed due to lack of oxygen at least in some parts of the combustion chamber. If the air-fuel mixture control system is not functioning properly in the engine, there can be lack of oxygen throughout the combustion chamber. If there is not enough oxygen available, the combustion takes place only partially, and carbon from the fuel turns into carbon monoxide (CO) instead of carbon dioxide (CO 2) as in the case of complete combustion. In the case of gasoline engines (utilizing the so-called Otto-cycle), the air-fuel ratio is controlled very strictly and is maintained constantly at the theoretically correct mixture in almost all driving situations. The only exception occurs when a cold engine is started and operated. Under these conditions it is usually necessary to enrich the mixture in order to ensure the start-up and smooth operation of the engine before it is warmed up. Under these conditions carbon monoxide emissions are high. They can be reduced, however, after a cold start, providing the two following requirements are met: the enrichment of the air-fuel ratio in the engine is turned off, and the temperatures of the catalytic converter and the lambda sensor are high enough. Engine and vehicle manufacturers are pursuing enrichment strategies which enrich the mixture by as small an amount as possible. And they are trying to make the enrichment period as short as possible. In addition, the catalytic exhaust after treatment device manufacturers are working in order to find catalyst chemistry that will have as low a light-off temperature as possible, meaning that the conversion (oxidation) of CO and hydrocarbons in the catalyst would start as early as possible after a cold start. Typically, the light-off temperature is in the range of 150 to 250 C. Ageing of the catalyst may increase this temperature close to 300 C. Figure 6.2 presents CO concentration measurement results for a European subcompact gasoline-powered car (2003 model) with a 1.6 liter gasoline engine. Test temperature was -7 C. The drive cycle used in this test was the current European official emission test drive cycle, also known as the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) or "EC2000" cycle, which has been implemented since the Euro 3 regulations came into effect in 2000.

61

Internal combustion engines

Essential in this test cycle is that the engine of the test vehicle and the emission sampling are both started simultaneously. In previous legislation stages (up to the Euro 2 regulations), the engine was started 40 seconds before the emission measurement began, allowing most of the emissions to dissipate in the atmosphere without detection. In Figure 6.2, cumulative CO emission and CO concentration measured from raw (undiluted) exhaust are presented as a function of the distance driven.

CO * EC2000 @ -7 C 70 60
Cumulative emission [g]
Koe # 22470; Mini Cooper 2D-RC31/247

14
Cumulative CO emission CO-pstkertym 50 % accumulated 50 % kertymst, km 90 % accumulated 90 % kertymst, km 95 % accumulated 95 % kertymst, km CO concentraton CO-tilavuusosuus

12
Concentration [%]

50 40
0.217

10 8

30 20 10 0 0.00

0.279

6 4 2 0 2.00

0.088

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

1.75

Trip length [km]


Fig. 6.2. CO concentration and cumulative CO emission from a subcompact 1.6 liter gasoline car in the official European test cycle at ambient temperature of -7 C. (VTT)

Figure 6.2 shows that the CO concentration in exhaust has been high, between 4 to 6%, during the first 250 meters of driving. This is caused by the cold-start enrichment period. Timewise, this means about 75 seconds from engine start-up. (there is an idle period of 11 seconds at the beginning of the test cycle before actual driving starts). After about 250 meters of driving, the CO concentration has decreased dramatically. This is due to the fact that the fuel mixture enrichment has been turned off, and the air-fuel ratio has become stoichiometric (lambda = 1). When a mixture (or a ratio) is stoichiometric, it means that the engine receives exactly the correct amount of fuel corresponding to the amount of air available. Under these conditions, there is just enough air for complete combustion. However, the CO concentration has still been around 0.5% between about 300 meters and 350 meters of driving. This indicates that the mixture has been stoichiometric, but that the catalytic converter temperature has not been high enough for effective CO conversion.

62

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

After about 350 meters of driving (about 90 seconds from engine start), the temperature in the catalytic converter has apparently reached a sufficiently high level, because at that stage the CO concentration dropped to almost negligible values. The concentration trace has risen a few times after reaching the close-to-zero values for the first time. This is probably due to slight enrichment periods in the engine operation during the acceleration of the vehicle. The red curve in Figure 6.2 (cumulative CO emission in grams) and the driving distances in meters associated with it, show that almost all of the total CO emission is generated during the first quarter of a kilometer of driving. For example, 95% of the CO from the whole test distance (4.052 km) has been generated after 279 meters of driving. Typically, carbon monoxide emissions from diesel engines are relatively low. This is due to the fact that diesel engines always run on excess air, meaning that the air-fuel ratio, also known as the lambda value, is all the time much greater than one. This results in fairly complete combustion of carbon, since there is usually enough air and oxygen available in all parts of the combustion chamber under most driving conditions. Carbon monoxide is an insidious poisonous gas that can cause death very easily. It cannot be smelled, seen or tasted, but it binds itself to the hemoglobin of the blood forming carboxyhemoglobin, which prevents the blood circulation system from transporting oxygen to the tissues of the body. Persons with heart disease are especially sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning and may have chest pain if they breathe CO while exercising. Infants, elderly persons and individuals with respiratory diseases are also particularly sensitive. Carbon monoxide can affect healthy individuals, impairing their exercise capacity, visual perception, manual dexterity, learning functions and ability to perform complex tasks. (EPA 1). The content of CO in air and the time of exposure are the critical factors concerning how serious the consequences might be when a human being is exposed to carbon monoxide. Figure 6.3 indicates, for example, that exposure of one hour to breathing air containing over 600 ppm of CO can cause death.

63

Internal combustion engines

Fig. 6.3 Effect of CO on human body at different concentrations and exposure times (Bartlett)

Carbon monoxide can usually be detected in ambient air around areas where there is heavy traffic. CO concentration is typically at its highest during rush hours and/or if the weather is cold there are several cars around starting cold engines. The area of influence of CO is usually limited, causing mostly local problems, since carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fairly quickly. It has to be emphasized that a vehicle should never be started in a closed garage, and no exhaust gas should ever be allowed to enter the interior of a vehicle. 6.2.2 Hydrocarbons (HC) Hydrocarbons in the exhaust are uncombusted or only partially combusted components of the fuel. They contain hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbon pollution results when unburned or partially burned fuel is emitted from the engine as exhaust, and also when fuel evaporates directly into the atmosphere. Hydrocarbons are often also referred to as volatile organic compounds (VOC). Hydrocarbon compounds found in the exhaust can be aldehydes (CmHn-CHO), ketones (CmHn-CO) or different carboxylic acids (CmHn-COOH) (Bosch, 2003). Because the temperature in the engine is high, the hydrocarbon chains may crack due to the heat, and they can also reconnect to form new kinds of compounds. These reactions may even continue in the tailpipe. If the fuel travels through the engine completely unburned, hydrocarbons in the form of CmHn (as in the fuel) are generated. Hydrocarbons are typically formed in the engine under conditions similar to those producing carbon monoxide. If there is a lack of oxygen in the combustion chamber, hydrocarbon emissions increase. A typical case for this is the cold engine enrichment period.

64

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

Furthermore, the formation of unburned hydrocarbons can result from unvaporized fuel droplets or from a liquid-state fuel layer on the surfaces of the combustion chamber. The composition of the fuel has, of course, an effect on the hydrocarbon formation. Small isolated spots in the combustion chamber, such as around the tip of the spark plug or between the piston and the cylinder wall (above the first piston ring), may generate hydrocarbon emissions because of a lack of oxygen locally. As in the case of CO, the catalytic converter has to reach the light-off temperature in order to be able to convert (oxidize) hydrocarbons into less harmful compounds. The light-off temperature for hydrocarbons can be higher than for carbon monoxide, and it usually increases as the converter gets older. In principle, evaporative hydrocarbon emissions are always released into the atmosphere when hydrocarbon fuel is poured from one container into another. In many gasoline stations, a suction device is used nowadays to collect at least part of the hydrocarbon fumes escaping from the vehicle fuel tank while it is being refilled. The properties of the fuel also affect the evaporative hydrocarbon emissions. The vapor pressure of gasoline should be kept as low as possible to minimize evaporative emissions. This is the task of the fuel refiner. A drawback of low vapor pressure is that it can result in poor cold starting properties of the fuel. However, blending gasoline with some oxygen-containing compound (e.g. ethers like MTBE or ETBE or alternatively with alcohol) may result in equal cold-start properties as before, even though the vapor pressure of the fuel is lowered. Gasolines of this kind, the so-called oxygenated gasolines, have been used in some heavily trafficked areas of the industrialized countries since the early 1990s. Hydrocarbon emissions are mostly gaseous compounds, but they may also take the form of tiny particles or droplets. Hydrocarbons include many toxic compounds that cause cancer and other adverse health effects. Hydrocarbons also react with nitrogen oxide in the presence of sunlight to form ozone, a serious air pollutant in major cities across the world. Ground-level ozone, in turn, is the primary constituent of smog (EPA 2). Hydrocarbons come from a great variety of industrial and natural processes. In typical urban areas, a significant part of hydrocarbons come from road transportation and also from non-road mobile sources such as construction vehicles. Traditional 2-stroke engines, lubricated by oil blended in the fuel, are gross-emitters of hydrocarbons. This is caused by the fact that the lubrication oil consists of heavy long-chained hydrocarbons which do not combust well. This results in extremely high hydrocarbon emissions from small 2-stroke engines that are used for mopeds, snowmobiles, chain saws, garden equipment etc. 6.2.3 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Nitrogen oxides are not end-products but side-products of fuel combustion, since the constituents of nitrogen oxides (nitrogen and oxygen) do not originate from fuel but from ambient air.

65

Internal combustion engines

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is the generic term for a group of highly reactive gases, all of which contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. The most significant oxides of nitrogen are nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) along with particles in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas. Nitrogen oxides form when fuel is burned at high temperatures, as in a combustion process. The primary man-made sources of NOx are motor vehicles, electric utilities and other industrial, commercial and residential sources that burn fuels. NOx can also be formed naturally. Nitrogen oxides can be controlled in gasoline engines by utilizing the three-way catalyst which, through the chemical reduction process, converts NOx into nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water. In diesel engines, which run on an excess amount of air, three-way catalyst technology cannot be utilized. However, the means of controlling NOx emissions in diesel engines include retarding injection timing, using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and utilizing new catalytic reduction technology like the SCR (selective catalytic reduction) catalyst, which uses urea solution as a reductant. The adverse effects of NOx in the atmosphere include smog formation. Smog is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight. Children, people with lung diseases such as asthma, and people who work or exercise outside are susceptible to the adverse effects of NOx such as damage to lung tissue and reduction in lung function. Ozone can be transported by wind currents and cause health impacts far from original sources. Millions of people live in areas that do not meet the health standards for ozone. Other impacts from ozone include damaged vegetation and reduced crop yields. NOx and sulfur dioxide (SO2) react with other substances in the air to form acids (nitric and sulfuric acid), which fall to earth as rain, fog, snow or dry particles. Some may be carried by wind for hundreds of kilometers. Acid rain damages buildings and historical monuments as well as cars, and also causes lakes and streams to become acidic and unsuitable for many fish (EPA 3). NOx also reacts with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid and related particles. Human health concerns include effects on breathing and the respiratory system, damage to lung tissue, and premature death.

66

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

Fig. 6.4 Annual amount of NOx emissions (kilotons per year) in Europe in 1995 (People)

One member of the NOx group, nitrous oxide or N2O, is a greenhouse gas. It accumulates in the atmosphere with other greenhouse gases causing a gradual rise in the earth's temperature. This will lead to increased risks to human health, a rise in the sea level, and other adverse changes to plant and animal habitats. In the air, NOx reacts readily with common organic chemicals and even ozone, to form a wide variety of toxic products, some of which may cause biological mutations. Examples of these chemicals include the nitrate radical, nitroarenes, and nitrosamines. Nitrate particles and nitrogen dioxide can block the transmission of light, reducing visibility especially in urban areas. The map in Figure 6.4 (above) shows the annual NOx emission in kilotons in different parts of Europe in 1995. 6.2.4 Particulates (PM) Particulates, also known as particles or particulate matter (PM), are solid exhaust components while, as mentioned above, the compounds (CO, HC and NOx) are in the gaseous state. Particulate emissions are regulated by law for diesel engines, but it seems evident that, in the future, they will be regulated for gasoline engines, too. This will happen most likely for at least direct-injected gasoline engines.

67

Internal combustion engines

Particulates are formed especially in diesel engines, in which the air-fuel mixture is not homogenous, meaning that close to the fuel spray nozzles there is less air available for combustion than at the outer edges of the combustion chamber. The mixture in diesel engines is lean, meaning that there is, on average, always excess air available in the combustion chamber compared to the amount of air needed for complete combustion. However, due to the heterogeneity of the mixture, close to the fuel injector nozzles lack of sufficient amounts of air may be encountered locally. Lack of air is one of the main contributors to particulate formation. To limit particulate formation in diesel engines, the amount of fuel injected has to be limited at low engine speeds. This, of course, reduces the torque. The use of turbochargers, the very newest types of which are equipped with electronically controllable vanes (also called variable geometry turbochargers), has made it possible, along with increased amounts of air available, to increase the amount of fuel sprayed at low engine speeds, thus increasing the low-rpm torque without increasing particulate formation. The actual composition of particulates varies according to the engine and driving conditions, fuel composition etc., but basically they are formed from an uncombusted carbon core which is surrounded by fuel and lubricant originated hydrocarbons, water and some miscellaneous compounds. If the fuel contains sulfur, this too is found in particulates. The size of particulates can also vary, with typical diesel particulate sizes ranging from 0.01 to 1 m. (Neste) The most recent research has shown that particulates are also generated in gasoline engines. This is especially true in the case of direct injection gasoline engines, which are gaining popularity all the time due to their improved fuel economy. However, the particulate size in gasoline engine exhaust is very small, which leads to considerably lower total particulate mass emissions compared to those from diesel engines. There is evidence, however, that the smallest particulates might pose the greatest danger to human health, since the smaller the particle is, the further into the respiratory system it can penetrate. Small particles could find their way deep into the sensitive parts of the lungs and cause or worsen respiratory disease such as emphysema and bronchitis, and aggravate existing heart disease (EPA 4). This fact will probably have the consequence that in the future, also direct injection gasoline engines will be incorporated under particulate emission regulations. There is every reason to believe that diesel exhaust particulates can cause cancer, although studies on humans do not provide sufficient evidence as yet. In performing these kinds of studies, the difficulty is to prevent the test persons from being exposed to other cancer-causing substances. In any case, numerous research results indicate elevated lung cancer rates in occupational groups exposed to diesel exhaust. In 1998, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) formally listed diesel particulates as a toxic air contaminant. Extensive scientific literature demonstrates that exposure to diesel exhaust increases the risk of developing lung cancer and creates other, non-cancer, health problems, as well.
68

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

6.3

Evaporative emissions

In addition to combustion originated emissions (tailpipe emissions), evaporative emissions are also generated from motor vehicles. Evaporative emissions are hydrocarbons, or volatile organic compounds (VOC), that dissipate to the atmosphere from the vehicle's fuel system. Generally, efforts at the reduction of evaporative emissions include the capturing of vented vapors from within the vehicle, but also the reduction of emissions released to the atmosphere when refueling vehicles or whenever liquid hydrocarbon fuels are transferred from one container to another. To control the evaporative emissions in modern vehicles, vapors from the fuel tank are channeled through canisters containing activated carbon instead of being vented to the atmosphere, as was the case with carbureted engines. The vapors are adsorbed within the canister, which feeds them into the inlet manifold of the engine. When the vehicle is running, the vapors are desorbed from the carbon, drawn into the engine and burned. Evaporative emissions of passenger cars have to be measured as a part of the type approval procedure, and the result of the test has to be below legislative limit values before a new car model may enter the market. Evaporative emissions are measured using the co called SHED-test. When conducting the shed test, the test vehicle is parked inside a special measuring device, called "a shed", like a small garage, the airspace of which is completely sealed and isolated from the surrounding atmosphere. After keeping the vehicle in the shed a certain amount of time at a controlled and certified temperature, the hydrocarbon concentration of the air inside the shed is analyzed. The current limit is 2 grams of HC per hour, which may amount to an evaporation of one liter of gasoline in a month (Wikipedia).

6.4

History of emission legislation

Emission legislation specifies the maximum amount of pollutants allowed in exhaust gases discharged from a vehicle or an engine. The first emission standards in the world were initiated in California. The rationale behind the decisions in California was that air quality was worsening alarmingly in the South Coast Air Basin, where the city of Los Angeles is located. Already in the late 1950s, tailpipe emissions from motor vehicles were identified as key contributors to the ambient air pollution problems encountered. The gasoline-powered vehicles of those days utilized carbureted engines, the air-fuel ratio of which varied within a wide range of mixtures in different driving conditions producing plenty of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Needless to say, the vehicles had no emission after treatment.

69

Internal combustion engines

The city of Los Angeles was heavily trafficked already in those days, and it is surrounded by mountains which hinder the air from moving around. This phenomenon makes the pollution from the cars stay in the air and not dilute and dissolve in the atmosphere. The high population density and substantially large number of vehicles (for the time) in that relatively small area combined with the given climatic conditions, made the air quality so bad that legislative measures had to be taken. Subsequently, in 1964, the State of California became the first region to issue regulations stating maximum allowable emission levels for all 1966 and later model year new cars (EPA 5). A separate administrative office, the California Air Resources Board (CARB), was founded at the same time. The other states of the USA joined California by regulating emissions from motor vehicles soon after that. In 1966, a very similar statute was passed by the US Congress covering new cars from 1968 onwards. The next major milestone was passing of the Clean Air Act in 1970, which established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and gave it the jurisdiction to control motor vehicle emissions. (Laurikko, 1998) The first stages of emission regulations limited only carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. In response to this, the first catalytic converters appeared in 1975, having only the capability of oxidizing CO and HC. The character and adverse effects of NOx and particulates were not realized until several years later. The next major milestone was reached in 1981, when the USA also began regulating nitrogen oxides. Subsequently, three-way catalyst technology, capable of oxidizing CO and HC while simultaneously also reducing NOx, was introduced in 1981. In Japan, the emission legislation was initiated in 1967, when CO regulation for gasoline passenger cars came into force. Hydrocarbon regulation began in Japan in 1970, and NOx regulation in 1975. Since 1981, Japanese emission limit values have been 8 % below the levels when no limitations were in force. (Minato, 2005) In Europe, the first laws regulating vehicle emissions were initiated in 1970, when the European Economic Community (EEC) passed its first directive (70/220/EEC) on the subject. Already before that, the Inland Transport Committee (ITC), part of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE), had established an expert forum, the Group of Reporters on Pollution and Energy (GRPE), to collaborate internationally and report on the matter to the Working Party No 29 (WP.29), which deals with the regulations related to the construction of motor vehicles. (Laurikko, 1998). Since the original Directive in 1970, several Adaptations and Amendments have been adopted. The limit values have been lowered step by step, and also the test method designation has changed several times.

6.5 Emission legislation today

70

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

Today, emissions from internal combustion engines are regulated in dozens of countries throughout the world. Their regulatory authorities usually apply American, Japanese or European emission regulations to some degree, although the most recent and most stringent steps are not enforced in all cases. The regulated diesel emissions include: Carbon monoxide (CO) Hydrocarbons (HC), regulated either as total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) or as nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC). One combined limit for HC + NOx is sometimes used instead of two separate limits. Nitrogen oxides (NOx), composed of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Other oxides of nitrogen which may be present in exhaust gases, such as N 2O, are not regulated.

Diesel particulate matter (PM), measured by gravimetric methods (meaning mass determination). Sometimes diesel smoke opacity measured by optical methods is also regulated. Emissions are measured over an engine or vehicle test cycle which is an important part of every emission standard. Usually, light-duty vehicles are tested as complete vehicles on a chassis dynamometer, and heavy-duty engines are tested as engines-only in an engine dynamometer. Regulatory test procedures are necessary to verify and ensure compliance with the various standards. These test cycles are supposed to create repeatable emission measurement conditions and, at the same time, simulate real driving conditions of a given application. Analytical methods that are used to measure particular emissions are also regulated by the standards. Emission cycles are a sequence of speed and load conditions performed on a chassis or engine dynamometer. Emissions measured on vehicle (chassis) dynamometers are usually expressed in grams of pollutant per unit of traveled distance, e.g., g/km. Emissions measured according to an engine dynamometer test cycle are expressed in grams of pollutant per unit of mechanical energy delivered by the engine, typically g/kWh. Depending on the character of speed and load changes, cycles can be divided into steady state cycles and transient cycles. Steady state cycles are a sequence of constant engine speed and load modes. Emissions are analyzed for each test mode. Then the overall emission result is calculated as a (weighted) average from all test modes. In a transient cycle the vehicle (engine) follows a prescribed driving pattern which includes accelerations, decelerations, changes of speed and load, etc. Transient cycles usually represent real-world driving better.

71

Internal combustion engines

The final test results can be obtained either by analysis of exhaust gas samples collected in plastic bags over the duration of the whole cycle, or by electronic integration of a fast response, continuous emission measurement. Regulatory authorities in different countries have not been unanimous in adopting emission test procedures. Consequently, many types of test cycles are in use. Since exhaust emissions depend on the engine speed and load conditions, specific engine emissions which were measured on different test cycles may not be comparable, even if they are expressed or recalculated in the same units of measurement. This should be kept in mind when comparing emission standards from different countries. Tailpipe emission standards are usually implemented by government ministries responsible for the protection of the environment, such as the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) in the USA. In Europe, the legislation is set by the European Union Directives. The duty to comply with these standards is on the equipment (vehicle or engine) manufacturer. Typically all equipment has to be emission certified before it is released to the market. (Dieselnet 1)

6.6 Emission testing stages In most cases, tailpipe emission legislation requires the emissions of a vehicle or an engine to be tested at several stages over the whole of the lifetime of a product model. The emissions usually have to be controlled at three different stages. These are: type approval conformity of production in-use compliance Type approval (or certification) testing means that the manufacturer brings a new vehicle or engine model to an emission testing facility and has its product tested according to the appropriate legislative testing methods. This usually happens when the new model is in its prototype stage, and the actual production has not started yet. The purpose of the type approval testing is to provide evidence that the manufacturer of the product is capable of designing and building a vehicle or an engine that complies with the current appropriate emission standards. If this is proven, the new product may enter the market. Conformity of production (COP) testing is performed for vehicle or engine units, taken randomly from the production line, to provide evidence that the manufacturer of the product is capable of producing units, the emissions of which are sufficiently alike with the unit having been type approved, meaning that they are manufactured in mass-produced with sufficient exactitude.
72

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

In-use compliance testing is performed for vehicles having been in use for a certain amount of time. The purpose of this type of testing activity is to make sure that the emission level of the vehicle does not increase dramatically along with vehicle aging, but stays within the given range of deterioration. In-use compliance testing may be implemented for randomly selected vehicles, or in many cases for every vehicle in use, usually in conjunction with the legally required (annual) technical inspection. In the USA this type of testing is called the "smog check". In most cases, in-use compliance testing is performed using simpler measuring methods than are utilized in type approval and COP testing. This means that usually no chassis dynamometer is used, but the emissions are measured from an unloaded engine.

6.7 European regulations for light-duty vehicles 6.7.1 General In Europe, and typically elsewhere, the type approval emission testing of light-duty vehicles (passenger cars and vans up to 3500 gross vehicle weight) is carried out as complete-vehicle testing using a road-simulation chassis dynamometer. A simple type of chassis dynamometer, one which is capable of performing power measurements, is not suitable for emission testing, since the emission test cycle consists of variable driving speeds. Variable speeds require that the dynamometer has to feature the inertia-simulation capability, because the vehicle inertia has to be accounted for when the speed is increasing or decreasing. The exact road resistance values of the vehicle being tested have to be known based on calculations and/or road-testing results. These values are then programmed into the chassis dynamometer to simulate actual driving. The settings of the dynamometer can be checked by performing a coast-down test on the dynamometer and comparing the results to the corresponding values measured on a flat road under non-windy conditions. The emissions are collected over the test using a device called constant volume sampler (CVS). This device dilutes the exhausts gases with ambient air and measures the volume of the diluted exhaust. Dilution is used to prevent the moisture in the exhaust condensing and causing trouble in the analyzers. Another reason is to simulate normal conditions: the exhaust coming out of the tailpipe is diluted with ambient air anyway. Constant volume sampler vacuums a fixed pre-adjusted volume of the mixture of exhaust and dilution air. This means that when the engine load is low and a small amount of exhaust is generated, more dilution air is sucked through the system, whereas when the exhaust flow is high, the flow of dilution air is low. This principle makes it possible to measure the emissions (concentration multiplied by exhaust amount) over a transient test cycle without knowing the actual concentrations and exhaust flow rates at each moment. Figure 6.5 illustrates the complete test set-up for a type approval emission test for a passenger car. Part of the diluted exhaust collected and measured by the CVS system is
73

Internal combustion engines

collected in sample bags with a plastic coating called tedlar. Samples are taken from both diluted exhaust and from the dilution air. When calculating the final results, the possible emissions originating from the dilution air can thus be eliminated.

Chassis Dyno Control

Printout Storage

Calculations and data acquisition Dyno and driver's aid control Driver's aid display

Dilution air
Raw exhaust

Undiluted Sample (optional) Dilution Air Diluted Exhaust

Gas analysis CO CO2 HC NOx

Sample bags

Chassis dyno
J.Lauri kko'96

CVSsystem

Exhaust evacuation

Fig. 6.5 Test set-up for a type approval emission test (VTT)

After performing the test, the collected samples are analyzed, and the results are calculated according to the measured exhaust volume, measured concentrations and densities of the emission compounds, and distance driven. The final results are then expressed as grams per kilometer (g/km). The test conditions, like temperature and humidity, have to be controlled, recorded and checked that they are within the limits set by the Directives. For example, because high amounts of moisture in the intake air lowers combustion temperature and also NOx formation, humidity of the test cell has to be controlled and recorded. When calculating the NOx result, a correction factor calculated from the test conditions is used. If the humidity of the test cell is high, the correction factor for NOx is greater than 1, because high humidity has lowered the amount of NOx generated. Under low humidity conditions, however, high levels of NOx have been generated because of the elevated combustion temperature, and in this case the value of the NOx correction factor is below 1. The factor corrects the NOx result as if to represent average humidity conditions.

6.7.2 Performing the test


74

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

The test cycle in the European test type consists of periods of steady acceleration, steady speed and steady deceleration. The test is divided into two parts representing urban and extra-urban driving. The maximum speed in the urban part is 50 km/h and in the extra urban part is 120 km/h. The duration of the test is 1180 seconds (19 min 40 seconds), and the distance driven is 11.007 kilometers. Average speed is 33.6 km/h (Figure 6.6). The engine and emission measurement are both started simultaneously at the beginning of the test.

The New European Driving Cycle


140 120 100
speed [km/h]

80 60 40 20 0 0 200 400 600


tim e [s]

800

1000

1200

Fig. 6.6 The new European driving cycle

The cycle has been used as such from the beginning of the Euro 3 regulations, which became effective in the year 2000. Before that, an extra idling period of 40 seconds was applied before the emission sampling started. Needless to say, the old procedure was not a realistic method of determining the amount of emissions, because the highest concentrations right after cold start were not accounted for. Before 1991, only the urban part (the first 780 seconds) of the test was used. During the test, the driver drives the vehicle just like s/he would drive it on the road. S/he has a computer screen, called a driver's aid, which shows him or her the required speed and use of gears. The driving cycle is programmed as a graphic curve in the system, and the actual driving speed measured by the dynamometer is presented to the driver as a moving dot on the screen. The driver's responsibility is to keep the dot on top of the speed curve by moving the accelerator pedal as little and as slowly as possible. The urban part of the test cycle consists of four elementary cycles (195 seconds). In each of the elementary cycles, the car is accelerated from zero three times (Figure 6.7). During the first acceleration, only first gear is used, the speed is increased to 15 km/h followed by a steady speed phase before bringing the speed back to zero for the next idle

75

Internal combustion engines

period. During the second acceleration, first gear is used up and till 15 km/h, when the gear is switched to second, and the speed is increased to 32 km/h before slowing down. During the third acceleration, after first and second gears, third gear is used from a speed of 32 km/h upwards.

ECE 15 urban cycle


70 60
speed [km/h]

50 40 30 20 10 0 0 30 60 90
time [s]

120

150

180

Fig. 6.7 Elementary cycle of the urban part of the European test cycle

In the extra-urban part of the test, constant speeds of 70 km/h, 50 km/h, 70 km/h, 100 km/h and, briefly, 120 km/h are used. A lot of experience is required for the driver to be able to follow the required speed curve exactly enough. Usually, a beginner driver overacts and moves the gas pedal too much when correcting the speed that has drifted out of the required value. As already mentioned, the cycle designation also determines the gears that the driver is supposed to use. The gear changing pattern is the same for all light-duty vehicles, which means that it can be more suitable for the gear ratios of some vehicles than those of others. On the other hand, the gear changing pattern of the designated emission and fuel consumption test cycle may be one of the factors the vehicle manufacturer considers, when selecting the gear ratios. In the case of automatic transmission, the gear selector is set to "D" position, and the driver allows the selection of gears to happen automatically. The acceleration and deceleration rates of the test cycle are quite low. As such, the cycle does not represent actual aggressive driving of today very well. In most real-world driving situations the speed changes are faster, and constant speed is used only seldom. Before a vehicle can be tested, the fuel in the tank has to be replaced by a designated test fuel. Also, the vehicle has to be driven on the dynamometer according to certain procedures during the day preceding the actual test. This is called preconditioning the vehicle.
76

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

The need for preconditioning the vehicle is due to the fact that the light-off temperature and general functioning of the catalytic converter may vary depending on the type of use the vehicle has experienced just before the test. For example, if the vehicle has been used only for short cold-running periods preceding the test, the catalytic converter would be sooty and would not function efficiently. On the other hand, if the vehicle has been used only for long high-speed motorway driving before the test, the catalytic converter would be exceptionally clean and effective at the time the test begins. The preconditioning of the vehicle evens out these differences. After the preconditioning of the vehicle is completed, the vehicle is soaked (i.e., left to stand) under controlled temperature conditions for a certain amount of hours (in practice, overnight). The engine is then not started until next day, at the very moment when the actual test begins. As a result, type approval emission testing takes quite a long time. If something goes wrong, the preconditioning has to be re-done, and the vehicle soaked overnight again. 6.7.3 Limit values Over the years, the Directives have established several sets of limit values, which have become stricter and stricter each time a new set of values has been issued. Figure 6.8 illustrates the development of the limit values from 1970, when the first limit values were published, until today. It can be seen that current limit values for passenger cars are roughly 3 to 5 % compared with the typical values before limitations.

100 90
Psttaso [%] Emission level [ % ]

NOx HC CO

100% = taso ennen mryksi (=ECE15/00) 100 % = The level before regulations (=ECE 15/00)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20
Summa HC+NOx >

CO HC NOx

< 5% 10 0 1970 1975 1980 < 5% < 3% 1985 1990 Vuosi Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 NOx HC Pstlaji CO

2015

Fig. 6.8 Development of the European limit values for passenger cars

77

Internal combustion engines

Numerical values for the limit values from the Euro 1 stage onwards are presented in Table 6.1. It can be seen that the Euro 3 CO limit value for gasoline cars (2.30 g/km) is higher than the preceding corresponding Euro 2 value (2.2 g/km). This seems strange, since, usually a new standard is lower than the old one. The explanation for this is the change in the test method. As already mentioned, until the introduction of the Euro 2 stage, the engine was idling for 40 seconds before the measurement started. When Euro 3 became effective, all the exhaust was collected right from the very start-up of the engine. This makes the Euro 3 CO regulation much tighter than the old one, even though the numerical limit value is higher. 6.7.4 Cycle beating The expression cycle beating refers to a way of calibrating an engines emission control system in such a way that the emissions are low for the load conditions present during the official emission test cycle, but can be much higher when the engine is operating outside of the load/engine speed range used in the test. In many cases, the fuel injection system of a gasoline engine can be programmed so that the air-fuel ratio (lambda value) is kept at the stochiometric value only at low load levels and low engine speeds, which are the load conditions utilized during the emission test. Above this range of engine operation, mixture enrichment is often used, and this leads to dramatically increased CO and HC values in the exhaust. This may not be known by the general public, who may believe that they can press down on the accelerator pedal as hard as they want because the catalytic converter in the vehicle
Table 6.1 Numerical values for the passenger car limit values in Europe (Dieselnet 2)

78

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

will keep the emissions low. Unfortunately, this is not the whole truth. In many cases the emissions burst up from the rated values when the vehicle is accelerated hard. A Swedish study on this issue, conducted in 1998 (Kgeson, 1998), provides evidence for the assumptions mentioned above. Figure 6.9 illustrates the maximum power values as a function of engine speed for two passenger cars. There are two curves presented for both vehicles. The continuous curve indicates the power measured with regular fuel injection settings programmed by the manufacturer. The lower curve (dotted line) indicates the maximum power, measured when the mixture was kept at the lambda = 1 value. The differences between the continuous and dotted curves illustrate the margin in power output between the rated power and the power achieved at a mixture setting giving the lowest possible emissions. It can be seen that the car on the left is only able to reach very low power at the setting optimized for emissions. This kind of behavior can be called cycle beating. The car on the right performs much better in this respect. In the late 1990s, several heavy-duty truck engine manufacturers in the USA were caught out manipulating the engine operation to release low emissions only at the engine operating points used in the test cycle. The exposure of this cycle beating activity led to penalties and resulted in substantial negative publicity for the manufacturers involved.

79

Internal combustion engines

Fig. 6.9 Differences in power in two passenger cars when the air-fuel ratio is at the manufacturers setting and when it was kept at lambda = 1 (Kgeson)

6.8

European regulations for heavy-duty vehicles

Unlike in the case of passenger cars and vans, which are tested as complete vehicles, the emission certification tests for heavy-duty transportation vehicles are conducted as engineonly tests on an engine dynamometer. Engines used in heavy-duty vehicles are mostly diesel engines, but also the use of gaseous fuel powered engines is increasing because of environmental reasons. The reasons for engine-only testing are very practical. Firstly, large-scale chassis dynamometers capable of handling heavy-duty vehicles are very rare, and secondly, the heavy-duty engines are used in so many applications and variations of vehicles that the large amount of combinations that should be tested would made the complete-vehicle testing method too work-consuming and too costly. In the case of heavy-duty vehicles, the same engine is typically used in vehicles with different transmissions and final drives, different amounts and different types of axles, different states of load, different wheelbases and different weights of the vehicle. It is selfevident that the amount of possible combinations make complete-vehicle testing unthinkable. Before the year 2000, the European certification test method for heavy-duty engines utilized a steady-state type test cycle only. The test used was called the ECE-R49. From the Euro 3 regulations onwards (i.e., after 2000), the ECE-R49 test was replaced by a new steady-state test, called the ESC (European Steady Cycle). Also, an additional transient type test, called ETC (European Transient Cycle), became at the Euro 3 level compulsory for
80

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

engines having either advanced emission after-treatment systems (in other words, particulate traps) and/or NOx catalysts. An oxidation catalyst was not considered an advanced aftertreatment system, so engines equipped with an oxidation catalyst were not required to take the ETC test (Directive 1999). From the Euro 4 level (2005) on, both steady-state (ESC) and transient type (ETC) tests have to be passed before the certification for a heavy-duty engine is granted. Also, a smoke opacity test (ELR, European Load Response) is required. This applies to all types of diesel engines, regardless of their emission control systems. For gaseous fuel powered engines, only the ETC test is required (Directive 1999). 6.8.1 The ECE-R49 test The ECE-R49 test is a 13-mode test, where the engine is measured at idle and at five load levels at two engine speeds. The idle is measured three times, which make the total amount of measuring points equal to 13. Table 6.2 presents the measuring points and the measuring sequence of the ECE-R49 cycle. It can be seen that idle conditions are measured at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the test.

Table 6.2 Measuring points and test sequence of the ECE-R49 test (Dieselnet 3)

Figure 6.10 illustrates the measuring points of the ECE-R49 test. The numbers in the circles represent the order of the measuring points, and the size of the circles visualize the weighting factor of each point. The weighting factors are also marked next to the circles.

81

Internal combustion engines

Fig. 6.10 Schematic view of the test sequence of the ECE-R49 test (Dieselnet 3)

6.8.2 The ESC test The ESC test is a modified form of the ECE-R49 test. It also has 13 modes, but there are 3 engine speeds instead of 2. Additionally, the lowest load level, 10 %, has been dropped. The measuring points and the test sequence are presented in Table 6.3
Table 6.3 Measuring points and test sequence of the ESC test (Dieselnet 4)

82

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

Figure 6.11 illustrates the measuring points of the ECS test. The numbers in the circles represent the order of the measuring points, and the size of the circles show the weighting factor of each point. The weighting factors are also marked next to the circles.

Fig. 6.11 Schematic view of the test sequence of the ESC test (Dieselnet 4)

In Figure 6.11 three additional points, to be determined by the certification personnel, are marked. This means that the person in charge of the measuring procedure, has to select three load points between engine speeds "A" and "C" and between load levels of 25 % and of 100 % maximum. At these additional measuring points, the NOx concentration of the exhaust is measured. This procedure has been set up in order to prevent the cycle beating discussed earlier.

83

Internal combustion engines

The three engine speeds used in the ESC test are marked as "A", "B", and "C". The determination of these points is presented in Figure 6.12. The speed "nlo" is the speed below the speed producing maximum power (Pmax), at which the engine delivers 50 % of its maximum (rated) power. The speed "nhi" is the speed above Pmax, at which the engine delivers 70 % of its maximum power. The speed B is in the middle of the speeds nlo and nhi, whereas the speed A is in the middle of the speeds nlo and B, and the speed C is in the middle of the speeds B and nhi (Directive 1999). Mathematically this can be presented as follows: A = nlo + 25 % (nhi - nlo) B = nlo + 50 % (nhi - nlo) C = nlo + 75 % (nhi - nlo)

Fig. 6.12 Determination of the engine speeds in the ESC test (Directive)

The speed nref (=nlo + 95 % (nhi - nlo)) in Figure 6.12 is needed for the ETC test only, and is not used in the case of the ESC test. The limit values for the ESC test cycle are presented in Table 6.4 (Directive 1999). The smoke opacity limit values in the ELR (European Load Response) test are also presented in the rightmost column of the table.
Table 6.4 Limit values of the ESC (and the ELR) tests.

84

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

Table 6.4 also shows a new vehicle category designation; that of EEV. The EEV, or Environmentally Enhanced Vehicle, is a vehicle category that reaches lower emission values than those required from every vehicle. This gives the governments of the countries of the European Union the possibility to grant, for example, tax relief for vehicles that fulfill the EEV designation. This is a way to make early (earlier than compulsory) purchasing of the best possible emission control technology economically attractive for a new vehicle buyer. 6.8.3 The ETC test The ETC test has been generated by collecting data from real-world driving. It simulates urban, rural and motorway driving. The driving speed and engine conditions (speed and torque) were recorded during an actual driving situation, and a certified emission cycle was established on the basis of the results obtained. Figure 6.13 presents the time - driving speed pattern that lies behind the ETC cycle.

85

Internal combustion engines

Fig. 6.13 The time - driving speed pattern behind the ETC test (Dieselnet 5)

Figure 6.14 shows the variation in engine speed during the ETC test. It can be clearly seen that variations in engine speed are smaller in motorway than in rural or urban driving.

Fig. 6.14 The time - engine speed pattern of the ETC test (Dieselnet 5)

In Figure 6.15, the engine torque variation during the ETC test is shown. The torque varies quite rapidly even at the motorway-simulating phase (end part of the test). It is also noteworthy that the torque quite often reaches below-zero values. These phases in the test cycle simulate engine braking situations. In real driving, engine braking occurs when the vehicle is moving and the driver does not press the accelerator pedal, but the inertia (movement) of the vehicle forces the engine to run.

86

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

During the engine braking simulation stages in the ETC test, the engine dynamometer acts like an electric motor and forces the test engine to rotate rather than absorbs power from it.

Fig. 6.15 The time - engine torque pattern of the ETC test (Dieselnet 5)

In terms of equipment needed for running the ETC test, the rapid variations in engine speed and torque, as well as the requirement to simulate engine braking, make the use of a so-called active engine dynamometer a must. The active type engine dynamometers are very expensive devices that have extremely sophisticated computerized control systems and can also deliver power (during engine braking simulations) in addition to absorbing it. An active engine dynamometer at the Technical Research Center of Finland, capable of handling power levels up to 400 kW, is illustrated in Figure 6.16.

Fig. 6.16 The active engine dynamometer for ETC testing at the Technical Research Center of Finland (VTT)

87

Internal combustion engines

Limit values for the ETC test are presented in Table 6.5. It has to be noted that instead of limiting the total amount of hydrocarbons (HC, also abbreviated as THC), the hydrocarbon limits for this transient type test are given as non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC). The NMHC value can be determined, for example, by measuring both the total hydrocarbon (THC) and the methane (CH4) values and subtracting the methane proportion from the total value. For the ETC test, in addition to the NMHC limit, there is also a separate limit value for methane (CH4). The methane limit is applicable to natural gas engines only. Methane is the main constituent of natural gas, so the amount of unburned methane has to be limited. This is especially important because the methane molecule is fairly sturdy and it is more difficult to oxidize in the catalytic converter than other hydrocarbon compounds. Usually, natural gas engines utilize catalysts, the chemical composition of which is explicitly optimized for methane oxidation. Methane itself is not considered to be toxic or reactive. However, methane emissions became more of an issue after it was realized that methane is a greenhouse gas trapping the heat in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide (CO2), but at a rate about 20 times stronger. Among the ETC test limit values, there are also separate values for the EEV vehicle category discussed earlier in conjunction with the ESC test.

Table 6.5 Limit values of the ETC test

88

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

6.8.4 The ELR test The ELR engine test was introduced by the Euro 3 emission regulation, with effect from the year 2000, for the purpose of smoke opacity measurement from heavy-duty diesel engines. The test consists of a sequence of three load steps at each of the three engine speeds A (cycle 1), B (cycle 2) and C (cycle 3), followed by cycle 4 at a speed between speed A and speed C and a load between 10% and 100%, selected by the certification personnel. Speeds A, B, and C are the same as in the ESC test, and they were defined earlier. The sequence of dynamometer operation on the test engine is shown in Figure 6.17 (Dieselnet 6). In the ELR test, the engine load is increased rapidly three times at each of the engine speeds from 10 to 100 %, while the engine dynamometer keeps the engine speed constant. In the ELR test, there are 3 designated engine speeds (cycles 1 to 3) and the fourth one (cycle 4). The purpose of cycle 4 is to prevent cycle beating. In cycle 4, both the engine speed and the starting load level before increasing the load to 100 %, are to be selected by the testing personnel. This makes it very difficult for the engine manufacturer to design the engine to have good emissions performance only during the conditions existing in the known part of the test cycle. In the ELR test, smoke measurement values are continuously sampled during the test with a frequency of at least 20 Hz. The smoke traces are then analyzed to determine the final smoke values by calculation (Dieselnet 6).
89

Internal combustion engines

Figure 6.17 The ELR test

6.8.5 Conclusion It is easy to see that steady-state testing does not represent real-world driving. Even in the case of motorway driving at a relatively constant speed, the engine power varies all the time because of wind conditions and the small inclinations (gradients) in the road, even though they are not easily visible. This makes even steady-speed driving very transient in terms of how the engine experiences it. Needless to say that driving in cities and in heavy traffic provides even more transient conditions for the engine. Nevertheless, with the introduction of a transient type test in the year 2000, emissions testing took a huge step forward in terms of cycle correspondence to real-world conditions. In addition, the use of transient cycles makes it more and more difficult for the manufacturer to commit cycle beating.

Review questions 1. What are the differences between the air quality emissions and greenhouse gas emissions? 2. What effects can CO, HC and NOx have on humans? 3. Why does a lean mixture contribute to the formation of PM in diesel engines? 4. How are the stochiometric ratio and the lambda value related? 5. What happens when the lambda value is greater than 1 in a) diesel engines, and b) gasoline engines?
90

Chapter 6. Facts about emissions from motor vehicles

6. How effective do you think emission legislation has been in reducing emissions worldwide? 7. Can you suggest some other measures to reduce emissions worldwide? 8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of emissions testing in a laboratory and testing under real driving conditions? 9. Why is laboratory testing used - in other words, why isnt all emission testing carried out under actual road driving conditions?

91

You might also like