Chapter 1 Fundamental Concept of C.A.

The ANSYS computer program is a large-scale multipurpose finite element program which may be used for solving several classes of engineering analyses. The analysis capabilities of ANSYS include the ability to solve static and dynamic structural analyses, steady-state and transient heat transfer problems, mode-frequency and buckling eigenvalue problems, static or time-varying magnetic analyses, and various types of field and coupled-field applications. The program contains many special features which allow nonlinearities or secondary effects to be included in the solution, such as plasticity, large strain, hyperelasticity, creep, swelling, large deflections, contact, stress stiffening, temperature dependency, material anisotropy, and radiation. As ANSYS has been developed, other special capabilities, such as sub structuring, sub modeling, random vibration, kinetostatics, kinetodynamics, free convection fluid analysis, acoustics, magnetic, piezoelectric, coupled-field analysis and design optimization have been added to the program. These capabilities contribute further to making ANSYS a multipurpose analysis tool for varied engineering disciplines. The ANSYS program has been in commercial use since 1970, and has been used extensively in the aerospace, automotive, construction, electronic, energy services, manufacturing, nuclear, plastics, oil, and steel industries. In addition, many consulting firms and hundreds of universities use ANSYS for analysis, research, and educational use. ANSYS is recognized worldwide as one of the most widely used and capable programs of its type. The primary purpose of this manual is to demonstrate a wide range of ANSYS elements and capabilities in straightforward problems which have "classical" or readily-obtainable theoretical solutions. Furthermore, the close agreement of the ANSYS solutions to the theoretical results in this manual is intended to provide user confidence in the ANSYS solutions. An attempt has been made to include most element types and major solution capabilities of ANSYS in this set of test cases. These problems may then serve as the basis for additional validation and qualification of ANSYS capabilities by the user for specific applications that may be of interest. ANSYS finite element analysis software enables engineers to perform the following tasks: Build computer models or transfer CAD models of structures, products, components, or systems. Apply operating loads or other design performance conditions. Study physical responses, such as stress levels, temperature distributions, or electromagnetic fields. Optimize a design early in the development process to reduce production costs. Do prototype testing in environments where it otherwise would be undesirable or impossible (for example, biomedical applications).

The ANSYS program has a comprehensive graphical user interface (GUI) that gives users easy, interactive access to program functions, commands, documentation, and reference material. An intuitive menu system helps users navigate through the ANSYS program. Users can input data using a mouse, a keyboard, or a combination of both. About the GUI This section describes the ANSYS graphical user interface (GUI). The ANSYS GUI consists of seven main region or windows:

Layout of the GUI A) Utility Menu Contains utility functions that are available throughout the ANSYS session. Such as file control, graphics controls, and parameters. You also exit the ANSYS program menu. B) MAIN MENU Contains the primary ANSYS functions, organized by processors (preprocessor, solution, general postprocessor, design optimizer, etc.) C) TOOLBAR Contains push buttons that execute commonly used ANSYS command and functions. You may add your own push buttons by defining abbreviations. D) INPUT WINDOW Shows program prompt messages and allows you to type in commands directly. All previously typed in commands also appear for easy reference and, access. E) GRAPHICS WINDOW- A window where graphics displays are drawn. F) OUTPUT WINDOW List text output from the program in response to every function executed it is usually positioned behind the other windows and can be raised to the front when necessary. G) VIEW WINDOW - Contains active window number, Isometric view, Oblique view, Front view, Right view, Top view, Back view, etc. You can resize the ANSYS toolbar, Main Menu and Graphics Window, as well as the overall size of the GUI. To resize the areas in the GUI, drag the borders around the areas of the GUI while holding down the left mouse button. To change the overall size of the GUI, position the mouse on of the corners of the GUI and drag it diagonally towards the center of the GUI while holding down the left mouse button. You can save your GUI size settings by selecting Utility Menu> MenuCtrls> Save Element Name: An element type is identified by a name (8 characters maximum), such as LINK1, consisting of a group label (LINK) and a unique, identifying number (1). The element is selected from the library for use in the analysis by inputting its name on the element type.

Nodes: The nodes associated with the element are listed as I, J, K, etc. Elements are connected to the nodes in the sequence. This connectivity can be defined by automatic meshing. The node numbers must correspond to the order indicated in the "Nodes" list. The I node is the first node of the element. The node order determines the element coordinate system orientation for some element types.

Degrees of Freedom: Each element type has a degree of freedom set, which constitute the primary nodal unknowns to be determined by the analysis. They may be displacements, rotations, temperatures, pressures, voltages, etc. Derived results, such as stresses, heat flows, etc., are computed from these degree of freedom results. Degrees of freedom are not defined on the nodes explicitly by the user, but rather are implied by the element types attached to them. The choice of element types is therefore, an important one in any ANSYS analysis.------Real Constants: Data which are required for the calculation of the element matrix, but which cannot be determined from the node locations or material properties, are input as "real constants." Typical real constants include area, thickness, inner diameter, outer diameter, etc. A basic description of the real constants is given with each element type. The real constants are input with the R command. The real constant values input on the command must correspond to the order indicated in the "Real Constants" list. Material Properties: Various material properties are used for each element type. Typical material properties include Young's modulus (of elasticity), density, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, etc. An ANSYS label - EX, EY, references each property and EZ for the directional components of Young's modulus, DENS for density, and so on. Surface Loads: Various element types allow surface loads. Surface loads are typically pressures for structural element types, convections or heat fluxes for thermal element types, etc. Body Loads: Various element types allow body loads. Body loads are typically temperatures for structural element types, heat generation rates for thermal element types. KEYOPTS: KEYOPTS (or key options) are switches, used to turn various element options on or off. KEYOPT options include stiffness formulation choices, printout controls, element coordinate system choices, etc. A basic description of the KEYOPTS is given with each element type. KEYOPTS are identified by number, such as KEYOPT (1), KEYOPT (2), etc., with each numbered KEYOPT able to be set to a specific value. Values for the first six KEYOPTS (KEYOPT (1) through KEYOPT (6)) may be input with the ET or KEYOPT commands. Values for KEYOPT (7) or greater on any element are input with the KEYOPT command.

Applicable ANSYS Products The following ANSYS products: ANSYS Multiphysics (includes all structural, thermal, electromagnetics, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) capabilities, excludes explicit dynamics) ANSYS Mechanical (includes all structural and thermal capabilities; excludes electromagnetics, CFD, and explicit dynamics capabilities) ANSYS Structural (includes all structural linear and nonlinear capabilities) ANSYS Professional ANSYS Emag (Low Frequency and High Frequency) ANSYS FLOTRAN ANSYS LS-DYNA ANSYS LS-DYNA PrepPost

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ANSYS PrepPost ANSYS ED Some command arguments and element KEYOPT settings have defaults in the derived products that are different from those in ANSYS Multiphysics. These cases are clearly documented under the "Product Restrictions" section of the affected commands and elements. If you plan to use your derived product input file in ANSYS Multiphysics, you should explicitly input these settings in the derived product, rather than letting them default; otherwise, behavior in ANSYS Multiphysics will be different. Terminology Various terms are used in the command descriptions throughout. These terms are defined as follows: Analysis - The set of input lines relating to a single problem. An analysis basically consists of three phases: the Preprocessing Phase, the Solution Phase, and the Postprocessing Phase. Command - An instruction to supply data, or control, to the program. Commands usually begin with a prescribed name, followed by alphanumeric data. For example, the command ET, ITYPE, Ename, ... may be input as ET,1, BEAM3 stating that element type 1 is defined as the BEAM3 element. The uppercase argument name indicates that a numerical value is typically entered in that field, whereas an upper-lower case data label indicates that an alphanumeric value is typically entered in that field. Another command, for example, /PREP7, instructs the program to enter the PREP7 portion of the ANSYS program. A command not recognized by the ANSYS program is defined as an "unknown command." Unknown commands are further processed in a macro search [*USE] before being ignored. Commands may be indented on a line for clarity. Data - Data may be numeric (real or integer), alphabetic, or alphanumeric (containing letters and numbers). Nonnumeric data should not contain special characters such as ! = @ | # \ $ { } % [ ] ^ " & ' * / ( < ) _ > ~ + `

Numeric data may be input in a variety of ways as described in Data Input. Some commands are switches of the form Command name, Key where Key can be zero, NO or OFF to toggle the switch off; or one, YES or ON to toggle the switch on. Degree of Freedom - The degrees of freedom are the primary nodal unknowns determined by the analysis. They may be displacements, rotations, temperatures, pressures, voltages, etc. A degree of freedom is defined by a node number and a label, for example, 1 UX, 87 ROTZ, 4 TEMP, etc. Derived results, such as stresses, heat flows, etc. are computed from the degree of freedom results and are considered secondary unknowns. Element types with unequal sets of degrees of freedom can be combined in a single structure. For example, a 2-D structure composed of 2-D solid elements (PLANE42) having two degrees of freedom (UX, UY) at each node and a 2-D beam element (BEAM3) having three degrees of freedom (UX, UY, ROTZ) at each node will have the latter three degrees of freedom at the common nodes. Nodes which do not have a beam element attached will have only two degrees of freedom with ROTZ eliminated from the solution printout. Field - The command name and data items entered on a command are separated into consecutive fields. A field is assumed to be as "wide" as the number of characters specified. A comma is used to end one field and begin the next.

Line - A line of input is a physical record read by the computer. Input lines are limited to 640 characters (including preceding blanks, commas, and any special characters). For file input, a line is represented by one 640 column data record. For interactive input, a line is the string of characters (640 maximum) entered before the RETURN key is pressed. Several commands may be put on one line as described in Data Input. Blank lines are permitted for clarity.

Command name - Only the first four characters of any alphabetic (or alphanumeric) command name are interpreted by the program (except as noted for certain commands, such as /POSTN, /AUXN. *ENDDO, etc.). The remaining characters of the field are ignored. Names shown with fewer than four characters are assumed to have blanks up through the fourth character as part of the name. For example, this sample ET command may be input as ET,1,42 or ET ,1,42 or ET ,1,42, but not as ETABCD,1,42. Names may not contain special characters (as described in Data Input). If the command name is omitted, the name defaults to the name of the previous command, unless it was a slash (/) or star (*) command. Preprocessing Phase - The set of ANSYS commands related to defining the model. The preprocessing phase consists of input from the PREP7 processor. Postprocessing Phase - The set of ANSYS commands causing further processing of the solution output. These commands consist of commands from the POST1 and POST26 processors. The postprocessing phase may consist of input for several postprocessing sessions (in series). Solution Phase - The set of ANSYS commands, which apply boundary conditions to the model created in preprocessing, then performs a solution for that set of boundary conditions. The solution phase may consist of several solutions in series, such as a static solution, followed by a modal solution, etc. Program - The collection of all processors (preprocessing, postprocessing, auxiliary, etc.) is called the ANSYS program. Processor - A group of related functions, such as model definition (PREP7) or results examination (POST1). Run - The collection of all ANSYS commands between the system level commands is called an ANSYS run (or session). A session may also consist of several analyses in series (separated by a /CLEAR command). Plane and Axisymmetric Solutions A 2-D solid analysis is based upon a "per unit of depth" calculation and all appropriate output data are on a "per unit of depth" basis. Many 2-D solids, however, allow an option to specify the depth (thickness). A 2-D axisymmetric analysis is based on a full 360. Calculation and all appropriate output data are on a full 360 basis. In particular, the total forces for the 360 model are output for an axisymmetric structural analysis and the total convection heat flow for the 360 model is output for an axisymmetric thermal analysis. For axisymmetric analyses, the X, Y, Z, and XY stresses and strains correspond to the radial, axial, hoop, and in-plane shear stresses and strains, respectively. The global Y axis must be the axis of symmetry, and the structure should be modeled in the +X quadrants. General Element Features The ANSYS element library consists of more than 100 different element formulations or types.

Element Input Element Name Nodes Degrees of Freedom Real Constants Material Properties Surface Loads Body Loads Special Features KEYOPTS Linear Material Properties Lab on Command EX EY EZ PRXY PRYZ PRXZ NUXY NUYZ NUXZ GXY GYZ GXZ ALPX ALPY ALPZ CTEX CTEY CTEZ THSX THSY THSZ REFT DAMP Temp None Strain Strain/Temp Strain/Temp Force/Area None MP Units Force/Area Description Elastic modulus, element x direction Elastic modulus, element y direction Elastic modulus, element z direction Major Poisson's ratio, x-y plane Major Poisson's ratio, y-z plane Major Poisson's ratio, x-z plane Minor Poisson's ratio, x-y plane Minor Poisson's ratio, y-z plane Minor Poisson's ratio, x-z plane Shear modulus, x-y plane Shear modulus, y-z plane Shear modulus, x-z plane Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element x direction Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element y direction Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element z direction Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element x direction Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element y direction Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element z direction Thermal strain, element x direction Thermal strain, element y direction Thermal strain, element z direction Reference temperature (as a property) [see also TREF] K matrix multiplier for damping [see also BETAD]

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Lab on Command DMPR DENS KXX KYY KZZ C ENTH HF EMIS QRATE Heat/Mass*Temp Heat/Vol Enthalpy ( Heat / (Time*Area*Temp) None Heat/Time Emissivity Heat generation rate (MASS71 element only) DENS*C d(Temp)) Convection (or film) coefficient MP Units None Mass/Vol Heat*Length/ (Time*Area*Temp) Description Constant material damping coefficient Mass density Thermal conductivity, element x direction Thermal conductivity, element y direction Thermal conductivity, element z direction Specific heat

Geometric Nonlinearities Geometric nonlinearities refer to the nonlinearities in the structure or component due to the changing geometry as it deflects. That is, the stiffness [K] is a function of the displacements {u}. The stiffness changes because the shape changes and/or the material rotates. The program can account for five types of geometric nonlinearities:

1. Large strain assumes that the strains are no longer infinitesimal (they are finite). Shape 2.
changes (e.g., area, thickness, etc.) are also taken into account. Deflections and rotations may be arbitrarily large. Large rotation assumes that the rotations are large but the mechanical strains (those that cause stresses) are evaluated using linearized expressions. The structure is assumed not to change shape except for rigid body motions. The elements of this class refer to the original configuration. Stress stiffening assumes that both strains and rotations are small. A first order approximation to the rotations is used to capture some nonlinear rotation effects. Spin softening also assumes that both strains and rotations are small. This option accounts for the radial motion of a body's structural mass as it is subjected to an angular velocity. Hence it is a type of large deflection but small rotation approximation. Pressure load stiffness accounts for the change of stiffness caused by the follower load effect of a rotating pressure load. In a large deflection run, this can affect the convergence rate.

3. 4. 5.

Chepter-2

Overview of Structural Analyses

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools. Types of Structural Analysis The seven types of structural analyses available in the ANSYS family of products are explained below. The primary unknowns (nodal degrees of freedom) calculated in a structural analysis are displacements. Other quantities, such as strains, stresses, and reaction forces, are then derived from the nodal displacements. Structural analyses are available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS Structural, and ANSYS Professional programs only. You can perform the following types of structural analyses: Static Analysis Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions. Both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity, stress stiffening and large deflection. Buckling Analysis Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape. Both linear (eigenvalue) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible. Modal Analysis Used to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. Different mode extraction methods are available. Harmonic Analysis Used to determine the response of a structure to harmonically time-varying loads. Transient Dynamic Analysis Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.

Elements Used in Structural Analyses

Most ANSYS element types are structural elements, ranging from simple spars and beams to more complex layered shells and large strain solids. Most types of structural analyses can use any of these elements. Structural Element Types Category Spars Beams 2-D Solids 3-D Solids Shells Solid-Shell Contact Specialty Element Name(s) LINK1, LINK8, LINK10, LINK180 BEAM3, BEAM4, BEAM23, BEAM24, BEAM44, BEAM54, BEAM188, BEAM189 PLANE2, PLANE25, PLANE42, PLANE82, PLANE83, VISCO88, VISCO106, VISCO108, PLANE145, PLANE146, PLANE182, PLANE183 SOLID45, SOLID46, SOLID64, SOLID65, VISCO89, SOLID92, SOLID95, VISCO107, SOLID147, SOLID148, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, SOLID191 SHELL28, SHELL41, SHELL43, SHELL51, SHELL61, SHELL63, SHELL91, SHELL93, SHELL99, SHELL150, SHELL181 SOLSH190 CONTAC12, CONTAC52, TARGE169, TARGE170, CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175, CONTA176, CONTA178 COMBIN7, LINK11, COMBIN14, MASS21, COMBIN40, MATRIX50, SURF153, SURF154 MATRIX27, COMBIN37, COMBIN39,

Structural Static Analysis A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused by time-varying loads. Load in a Static Analysis Static analysis determines the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure's response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. Externally applied forces and pressures Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity) Imposed (nonzero) displacements Temperatures (for thermal strain) Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

Linear vs. Nonlinear Static Analyses A static analysis can be either linear or nonlinear. All types of nonlinearities are allowed - large deformations, plasticity, creep, stress stiffening, contact (gap) elements, hyperelastic elements, and so on. This chapter focuses on linear static analyses, with brief references to non-linearities.

Command used in a static analysis

Use the same set of commands to build a model and perform a static analysis that you use to do any other type of finite elements analysis. Choose similar options from the graphical user interface (GUI) to build and solve models no matter what type of analysis being done. Overview of steps in a static analysis The procedure for a static analysis Build the model. Apply loads and obtain the solution. Review the results. Step 1: Build the Model

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To build the model, you specify the jobs name and analysis title and then use PREP7 to define the element types, element real constants, material properties, and the model geometry. Points to Remember Keep the following points in mind when doing a static analysis: You can use both linear and nonlinear structural elements.

Command: ET GUI: Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Types > Add/Edit/Delete Material properties can be linear or nonlinear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent. You must define stiffness in some form (for example, Young's modulus (EX), hyperelastic coefficients, and so on). For inertia loads, you must define the data required for mass calculations, such as density (DENS). For thermal loads (temperatures), you must define the coefficient of thermal expansion (ALPX).

Step 2: Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution Define the analysis type and option, apply loads, specify load step options, and begin the finite element solution. 1. Enter the ANSYS Solution processor Command: /SOLU GUI: Main Menu > Solution Load Types Displacements (UX, UY, UZ) and pressures (PRES) These are DOF (degree-of-freedom) constraints. Forces (FX, FY, FZ) and moments (MX, MY, MZ) Usually, you specify these loads on the solid portion of the model to "excite" the fluid. Flow Load

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This is a mass flow rate per unit time (for example, kg/sec/sec in SI units). It represents a pulsating mass flow rate at a node. Specify it using the FLOW force label: Command(s): F,,FLOW GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Force/Moment> On Nodes Pressure (PRES) You can specify surface loads on the solid portion instead of forces and moments. 2. Define the analysis type and analysis options. ANSYS offers these points for a static analysis: Analysis types and analysis options Option New Analysis or Restart Analysis Type: Static Large Deformation Effects Stress Stiffening Effects Pre-Stress Effects Calculation Command ANTYPE ANTYPE NLGEOM SSTIF PSTRES GUI Path Main Menu > Solution > Analysis Type New Analysis Main Menu > Solution > Analysis Type New Analysis> Static Main Menu > Solution > - Analysis Option Main Menu > Solution > - Analysis Option Main Menu > Solution > - Analysis Option

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Options: New Analysis (or Restart) [ANTYPE] Options: Analysis Type: Static [ANTYPE] Options: Large Deformation Effects [NLGEOM] Options: Stress Stiffness Effects [SSTIF] Options: Pre-Stress Effects Calculation [PSTRES]

Apply loads to the model:

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Loads Application in a Static Analysis In an analysis, loads can be applied, removed, operated on, or listed. Load Type Displacement ( UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ) Force/Moment (FX, FY, FZ, MX, MY, MZ) Pressure (PRES) Temperature (TEMP) Fluence (FLUE) Load Step Options Option General Option Time Reference Temperature Mode Number Non-Linear Option Number of Time steps Stepped or Ramped Loads Printed Output Database Results Output & File Category Constraints Forces/ Moments Surface Load Body Loads Command Family D F SF BF GUI PATH Main Menu>Solution>Define Structural- Displacement Main Menu>Solution>Define Structural- Force/Moment Main Menu>Solution>Define Structural- Pressure Main Menu>Solution>Define Structural- Temperature

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Loads>Apply>Loads>Apply>Loads>Apply>Loads>Apply>-

Command Time TREF MODE NSUBST KBC OUTPR OUTRES

GUI Path Main Menu>Solution> Load step opts-Time/Frequent> Time & Time Step/Time & Substeps Main Menu>Solution> Load step opts-Other Reference Temp Main Menu>Solution>-Loads steps opts Other> For Harmonic Ele Main Menu>Solution> Load step opts-Time/Frequent> Time & Time Steps Main Menu>Solution> Load step opts-Time/Frequent> Time & Time Step/Time & Substeps Main Menu>Solution>-Load Steps Opts Output Ctris>Solu Printout Main Menu>Solution>-Load Steps Opts Output Ctris> DB/Results File

Save a back-up copy of the database to a named file. Command: SAVE GUI: Utility Menu>File>Save as Start Solution Calculations Command: SOLVE GUI: Main Menu>Solution>-Solve-Current Ls Review the Results Results from a static analysis are written to the structural results file, Jobname.RST. They consist of the following data: Primary Data: Nodal displacements (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ) Derived Data:

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Nodal and element stresses Nodal and element strains Element force Nodal reaction forces Etc.

Postprocessors You can review these results using POST1, the general postprocessor, and POST26, the time- history processor. 1. Read in the database from the database file. GUI: Utility Menu>File>Resume from 2. Read in the desired set of results. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results>First Set 3. Perform the necessary POST1 operations. Typical static analysis POST1 operations are explained below. Option: Display deformed Shapes

Command: PLDISP, PLDISP, KUND

Displays the displaced structure. KUND Undisplaced

shape key:

0 Display only displaced structure. Overlay displaced display with similar undisplaced display (appearance is system1 dependent). Same as 1 except overlay with undisplaced edge display (appearance is system2 dependent). GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Plot Results>Deformed Shape

Option: List Reaction Forces and Moments Prints the constrained node reaction solution. LAB: Nodal reaction load type. If blank, use the first ten of all available labels. Valid labels are: Structural force labels: FX, FY or FZ (forces); F (FX, FY and FZ); MX, MY or MZ (moments); M (MX, MY and MZ). GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>List Results>Reaction Solu Utility Menu>List>Results>Reaction Solution The PRRSOL command lists reaction forces and moments at the constrained nodes.

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Option: List Reaction Forces and Moments GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>List Results>Element Solution Select a set of nodes and use this feature to find out the total force acting on those nodes. GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Nodal Calcs>Total Force Sum You can also check the total force and total moment at each selected node. GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Nodal Calcs>Sum @ Each Node Option: Line Element Results GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Element Table>Define Table

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For line element, such as beams, spars, and pipes, use this option to gain access to derived data (Stresses, Strains, etc.) Option: Contour Displays GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Plot Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solu Utility Menu>Plot>Results>Contour Plot>Nodal Solution Use this option to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ, ), STRAINS (EPELX, EPELY, EPELZ,), AND DISPLACEMENT (UX, UY, UZ,) Option: Vector Displays GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Plot Results>Vector Plot>Predefined GUI: Main Menu>General Postproc>Plot Results>Vector Plot>User-defined Utility Menu>Plot>Results>Vector Plot Utility Menu>PlotCtrls>Animate>Q-Slice Vectors

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Chapter 3 Buckling Analysis Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads (critical loads at which a structure becomes unstable) and buckled mode shapes (the characteristic shape associated with a structure's buckled response). Types of Buckling Analyses Two techniques are available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS Structural, and ANSYS Professional programs for predicting the buckling load and buckling mode shape of a structure: nonlinear buckling analysis, and eigenvalue (or linear) buckling analysis. Because the two methods can yield dramatically different results, it is necessary to first understand the differences between them. Nonlinear Buckling Analysis Nonlinear buckling analysis is usually the more accurate approach and is therefore recommended for design or evaluation of actual structures. This technique employs a nonlinear static analysis with gradually increasing loads to seek the load level at which your structure becomes unstable. Using the nonlinear technique, your model can include features such as initial imperfections, plastic behavior, gaps, and large-deflection response. In addition, using deflection-controlled loading, you can even track the post-buckled performance of your structure (which can be useful in cases where the structure buckles into a stable configuration, such as "snap-through" buckling of a shallow dome). Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis Eigenvalue buckling analysis predicts the theoretical buckling strength (the bifurcation point) of an ideal linear elastic structure. This method corresponds to the textbook approach to elastic buckling analysis: for instance, an eigenvalue buckling analysis of a column will match the classical Euler solution. However, imperfections and nonlinearities prevent most real-world structures from achieving their theoretical elastic buckling strength. Thus, eigenvalue-buckling analysis often yields unconservative results, and should generally not be used in actual day-to-day engineering analyses. Commands Used in a Buckling Analysis You use the same set of commands to build a model and perform a buckling analysis that you use to do any other type of finite element analysis. Likewise, you choose similar options from the graphical user interface (GUI) to build and solve models no matter what type of analysis you are doing. Performing a Nonlinear Buckling Analysis A nonlinear buckling analysis is a static analysis with large deflection active (NLGEOM, ON), extended to a point where the structure reaches its limit load or maximum load. Other nonlinearities such as plasticity may be included in the analysis. Applying Load Increments The basic approach in a nonlinear buckling analysis is to constantly increment the applied loads until the solution begins to diverge. Be sure to use a sufficiently fine load increment as your loads approach the expected critical buckling load. If the load increment is too coarse, the buckling load predicted may

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not be accurate. Turn on bisection and automatic time stepping (AUTOTS, ON) to help avoid this problem. Automatic Time Stepping

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With automatic time stepping on, the program automatically seeks out the buckling load. If automatic time stepping is ON in a static analysis having ramped loading and the solution does not converge at a given load, the program bisects the load step increment and attempts a new solution at a smaller load. In a buckling analysis, each such convergence failure is typically accompanied by a "negative pivot" message indicating that the attempted load equals or exceeds the buckling load. You can usually ignore these messages if the program successfully obtains a converged solution at the next, reduced load. If stress stiffness is active (SSTIF, ON), you should run without adaptive descent active (NROPT, FULL, OFF) to ensure that a lower bound to the buckling load is attained. The program normally converges to the limiting load as the process of bisection and resolution continues to the point at which the minimum time step increment (specified by DELTIM or NSUBST) is achieved. The minimum time step will directly affect the precision of your results. Unconverged Solution An unconverged solution does not necessarily mean that the structure has reached its maximum load. It could also be caused by numerical instability, which might be corrected by refining your modeling technique. Track the load-deflection history of your structure's response to decide whether an unconverged load step represents actual structural buckling, or whether it reflects some other problem. Perform a preliminary analysis using the arc-length method (ARCLEN) to predict an approximate value of buckling load. Compare this approximate value to the more precise value calculated using bisection to help determine if the structure has indeed reached its maximum load. You can also use the arc-length method itself to obtain a precise buckling load, but this method requires you to adjust the arc-length radius by trial-and-error in a series of manually directed reanalyses. Hints and Tips for Performing a Nonlinear Buckling Analysis If the loading on the structure is perfectly in-plane (that is, membrane or axial stresses only), the outof-plane deflections necessary to initiate buckling will not develop, and the analysis will fail to predict buckling behavior. To overcome this problem, apply a small out-of-plane perturbation, such as a modest temporary force or specified displacement, to begin the buckling response. (A preliminary eigenvalue buckling analysis of your structure may be useful as a predictor of the buckling mode shape, allowing you to choose appropriate locations for applying perturbations to stimulate the desired buckling response.) The imperfection (perturbation) induced should match the location and size of that in the real structure. The failure load is very sensitive to these parameters. Consider these additional hints and tips as you perform a nonlinear buckling analysis: Forces (and displacements) maintain their original orientation, but surface loads will "follow" the changing geometry of the structure as it deflects. Therefore, be sure to apply the proper type of loads. Carry your stability analysis through to the point of identifying the critical load in order to calculate the structure's factor of safety with respect to nonlinear buckling. Merely establishing the fact that a structure is stable at a given load level is generally insufficient for most design practice; you will usually be required to provide a specified safety factor, which can only be determined by establishing the actual limit load. You can extend your analysis into the post-buckled range by activating the arc-length method (ARCLEN). Use this feature to trace the load-deflection curve through regions of "snapthrough" and "snap-back" response. For those elements that support the consistent tangent stiffness matrix (BEAM4, SHELL63, and SHELL143), activate the consistent tangent stiffness matrix (KEYOPT(2) = 1 and NLGEOM,ON)

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to enhance the convergence behavior of your nonlinear buckling analyses and improve the accuracy of your results. This element KEYOPT must be defined before the first load step of the solution and cannot be changed once the solution has started. Many other elements (such as BEAM188, BEAM189, and SHELL181) will provide consistent tangent stiffness matrix with NLGEOM,ON.

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Procedure for Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis Again, remember that eigenvalue buckling analysis generally yields unconservative results, and should usually not be used for design of actual structures. If you decide that eigenvalue buckling analysis is appropriate for your application, follow this procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Build the model. Obtain the static solution. Obtain the eigenvalue buckling solution. Expand the solution. Review the results.

Build the Model Building a finite element model requires more of your time than any other part of the analysis. First, you specify a jobname and analysis title. Then, you use the PREP7 preprocessor to define the element types, element real constants, material properties, and the model geometry Points to Remember Only linear behavior is valid. Nonlinear elements, if any, are treated as linear. If you include contact elements, for example, their stiffnesses are calculated based on their status after the static prestress run and are never changed. Young's modulus (EX) (or stiffness in some form) must be defined. Material properties may be linear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent. Nonlinear properties, if any, are ignored.

Obtain the Static Solution The procedure to obtain a static solution is the same as described in previous examples, with the following execeptions: Prestress effects (PSTRES) must be activated. Eigenvalue buckling analysis requires the stress stiffness matrix to be calculated. Unit loads are usually sufficient (that is, actual load values need not be specified). The eigenvalues calculated by the buckling analysis represent buckling load factors. Therefore, if a unit load is specified, the load factors represent the buckling loads You can apply a nonzero constraint in the prestressing pass as the static load. The eigenvalues found in the buckling solution will be the load factors applied to these nonzero constraint values. However, the mode shapes will have a zero value at these degrees of freedom (and not the nonzero value specified). At the end of the solution, leave SOLUTION (FINISH).

Obtain the Eigenvalue Buckling Solution This step requires files Jobname.EMAT and Jobname.ESAV from the static analysis. Also, the database must contain the model data (issue RESUME if necessary). Follow the steps below to obtain the eigenvalue buckling solution.

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1. Enter the ANSYS solution processor. GUI: Main Menu> Solution 2. Specify the analysis type. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis 3. Restarts are not valid in an eigenvalue buckling analysis. 4. When you specify an eigenvalue buckling analysis, a Solution menu that is appropriate for buckling analyses appears. The Solution menu will be either "abridged" or "unabridged", depending on the actions you took prior to this step in your ANSYS session. The abridged menu contains only those solution options that are valid and/or recommended for buckling analyses. If you are on the abridged Solution menu and you want to access other solution options (that is, solution options that are valid for you to use, but their use may not be encouraged for this type of analysis), select the Unabridged Menu option from the Solution menu. 5. Specify analysis options. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options 6. Regardless of whether you use the command or GUI method, you can specify values for these options: For Method, specify the eigenvalue extraction method. You can choose subspace iteration or Block Lanczos. The Block Lanczos and subspace iteration methods use the full system matrices. For NMODE, specify the number of eigenvalues to be extracted. This argument defaults to one, which is usually sufficient for eigenvalue buckling. For SHIFT, specify the point (load factor) about which eigenvalues are calculated. The shift point is helpful when numerical problems are encountered (due to negative eigenvalues, for example). Defaults to 0.0. 7. Specify load step options. The only load step options valid for eigenvalue buckling are output controls and expansion pass options. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout You can make the expansion pass a part of the eigenvalue buckling solution or perform it as a separate step. In this document, we treat the expansion pass as a separate step. 8. Save a backup copy of the database to a named file. GUI: Utility Menu> File> Save As 9. Start solution calculations. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS 10. The output from the solution mainly consists of the eigenvalues, which are printed as part of the printed output (Jobname.OUT). The eigenvalues represent the buckling load factors; if unit loads were applied in the static analysis, they are the buckling loads. No buckling mode shapes are written to the database or the results file, so you cannot postprocess the results yet. To do this, you need to expand the solution (explained next). 11. Sometimes you may see both positive and negative eigenvalues calculated. Negative eigenvalues indicate that buckling occurs when the loads are applied in an opposite sense. 12. Exit the SOLUTION processor. Command(s): FINISH GUI: Close the Solution menu. 7.4.4. Expand the Solution If you want to review the buckled mode shape(s), you must expand the solution regardless of which eigenvalue extraction method is used. In the case of the subspace iteration method, which uses full

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system matrices, you may think of "expansion" to simply mean writing buckled mode shapes to the results file. 7.4.4.1. Points to Remember

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The mode shape file (Jobname.MODE) from the eigenvalue buckling solution must be available. The database must contain the same model for which the solution was calculated.

7.4.4.2. Expanding the Solution The procedure to expand the mode shapes is explained below. 1. Reenter SOLUTION. GUI: Main Menu> Solution 2. You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU) before performing the expansion pass. 3. Specify that this is an expansion pass. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> ExpansionPass 4. Specify expansion pass options. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Expand Modes 5. Regardless of whether you use the command or GUI method, the following options are required for the expansion pass: For NMODE, specify the number of modes to expand. This argument defaults to the total number of modes that were extracted. For Elcalc, indicate whether you want ANSYS to calculate stresses. "Stresses" in an eigenvalue analysis do not represent actual stresses, but give you an idea of the relative stress or force distribution for each mode. By default, no stresses are calculated. 6. Specify load step options. The only options valid in a buckling expansion pass are the following output controls: Printed Output:Use this option to include any results data on the output file (Jobname.OUT). GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrl> Solu Printout Database and Results File Output: This option controls the data on the results file (Jobname.RST). GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrl> DB/Results File Note: The FREQ field on OUTPR and OUTRES can only be ALL or NONE, that is, the data can be requested for all modes or no modes - you cannot write information for every other mode, for instance. 7. Start expansion pass calculations. The output consists of expanded mode shapes and, if requested, relative stress distributions for each mode. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS 8. Leave the SOLUTION processor. You can now review results in the postprocessor. Command(s): FINISH GUI: Close the Solution menu.

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20 9. The expansion pass has been presented here as a separate step. You can make it part of the
eigenvalue buckling solution by including the MXPAND command (Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Expand Modes) as one of the analysis options. Review the Results Results from a buckling expansion pass are written to the structural results file, Jobname.RST. They consist of buckling load factors, buckling mode shapes, and relative stress distributions. You can review them in POST1, the general postprocessor. NOTE: To review results in POST1, the database must contain the same model for which the buckling solution was calculated (issue RESUME if necessary). Also, the results file (Jobname.RST) from the expansion pass must be available. 1. List all buckling load factors. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Results Summary

2. Read in data for the desired mode to display buckling mode shapes. (Each mode is stored on the results file as a separate substep.) GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> load step 3. Display the mode shape. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Deformed Shape 4. Contour the relative stress distributions. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Solution Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Element Solution

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Chapter 4 Modal Analysis Modal Analysis Use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component while it is being designed. It can also serve as a starting point for another, more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a transient dynamic analysis, a harmonic response analysis, or a spectrum analysis. Uses for Modal Analysis The natural frequencies and mode shapes are important parameters in the design of a structure for dynamic loading conditions. They are also required if you want to do a mode superposition harmonic or transient analysis. Modal analysis can be done on a prestressed structure, such as a spinning turbine blade. Another useful feature is modal cyclic symmetry, which allows you to review the mode shapes of a cyclically symmetric structure by modeling just a sector of it. Modal analysis in the ANSYS family of products is a linear analysis. Any nonlinearities, such as plasticity and contact (gap) elements, are ignored even if they are defined. Overview of Steps in a Modal Analysis 1. 2. 3. 4. Build the model. Apply loads and obtain the solution. Expand the modes. Review the results. Build the Model

Step 1:

In this step, specify a job-name and analysis title. Then, you use the PREP7 preprocessor to define the element types, element real constants, material properties, and the model geometry. Step2: Applying Loads and Obtain the Solution

In this step you define the analysis type and options, apply loads, specify load step options, and begin the finite element solution for the natural frequencies.

Enter the Solution Processor 1. Enter the ANSYS solution processor. Command(s): /SOLU GUI: Main Menu> Solution

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Define Analysis Type and Options

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After you have entered the solution processor, you define the analysis type and analysis options. ANSYS offers the options listed in "Analysis Types and Options" for a modal analysis. Each of the options is explained in detail below. Analysis Types and Options Option New Analysis Command GUI Path ANTYPE Main Menu> Analysis Solution> Analysis Analysis Type> Type> New New

Analysis Type: Modal (see Note ANTYPE below) mode-extraction Method Number of Modes to Extract MODOPT MODOPT

Main Menu> Solution> Analysis> Modal

Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options

No. of Modes to Expand (see MXPAND Note below) Mass Matrix Formulation Prestress Effects Calculation LUMPM PSTRES

Option: Analysis Type: Modal [ANTYPE] Use this option to specify a modal analysis. Option: Mode-Extraction Method [MODOPT] Choose one of the extraction methods listed below. 1. Block Lanczos method (default) The Block Lanczos method is used for large symmetric eigenvalue problems. Lanczos method uses the sparse matrix solver, overriding any solver specified via the EQSLV command. 2. Subspace method The subspace method is used for large symmetric eigenvalue problems. Several solution controls are available to control the subspace iteration process. 3. PowerDynamics method The PowerDynamics method is used for very large models, and is especially useful to obtain a solution for the first several modes to learn how the model will behave. 4. Reduced (Householder) method

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The reduced method is faster than the subspace method because it uses reduced (condensed) system matrices to calculate the solution. However, it is less accurate because the reduced mass matrix is approximate. 5. Unsymmetric method The unsymmetric method is used for problems with unsymmetric matrices, such as fluidstructure interaction problems. 6. Damped method The damped method is used for problems where damping cannot be ignored, such as bearing problems. 7. QR Damped method The QR damped method is faster and achieves better calculation efficiency than the damped method. It uses the reduced modal damped matrix to calculate complex damped frequencies in modal coordinates. For most applications, you will use the Block Lanczos, subspace, reduced, or PowerDynamics method. The unsymmetric, damped, and QR damped methods are meant for special applications. Option: Number of Modes to Extract [MODOPT] This option is required for all mode-extraction methods except the reduced method. For the unsymmetric and damped methods, requesting a larger number of modes than necessary reduces the possibility of missed modes, but results in more solution time. Option: Number of Modes to Expand [MXPAND] This option is required for the reduced, unsymmetric, and damped methods only. However, if you want element results, you need to turn on the "Calculate elem results" option, regardless of the modeextraction method. Option: Mass Matrix Formulation [LUMPM] Use this option to specify the default formulation (which is element-dependent) or lumped mass approximation. We recommend the default formulation for most applications Option: Prestress Effects Calculation [PSTRES] Use this option to calculate the modes of a prestressed structure. By default, no prestress effects are included; that is, the structure is assumed to be stress-free. Additional Modal Analysis Options

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After you complete the fields on the Modal Analysis Options dialog box, click OK. A dialog box specific to the selected extraction method appears. You see some combination of the following fields: FREQB, FREQE, PRMODE, Nrmkey, RIGID, SUBOPT. Refer to the MODOPT and RIGID command descriptions for the meaning of these fields.

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Define Master Degrees of Freedom

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In a modal analysis, you also need to define master degrees of freedom. These are required only for the reduced mode-extraction method. Master degrees of freedom (MDOF) are significant degrees of freedom that characterize the dynamic behavior of the structure. You should choose at least twice as many MDOF as the number of modes of interest. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Master DOFs> User Selected> Define Apply Loads After defining master degrees of freedom, apply loads on the model. The only "loads" valid in a typical modal analysis are zero-value displacement constraints. Loads Applicable in a Modal Analysis Load Type Category Cmd Family GUI Path Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Displacement

Displacement (UX, UY, UZ, Constraints D ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ)

In an analysis, loads can be applied, removed, operated on, or listed. Applying Loads Using Commands Load Commands for a Modal Analysis Load Type Solid Model or FE Entity Solid Model Solid Model Finite Elem Lines Areas Nodes Apply Delete DL DA D List Operate Apply Settings -

Displacement Solid Model

Keypoints DK

DKDELE DKLIST DTRAN DLDELE DLLIST DTRAN DADELE DALIST DTRAN DDELE DLIST

DSCALE DSYM, DCUM

Specify Load Step Options The only load step options available for a modal analysis are damping options. Load Step Options Option Damping (Dynamics) Options Alpha (mass) Damping Beta (stiffness) Damping Material-Dependent Damping Ratio Element Damping (applied via element real constant) ALPHAD BETAD MP,DAMP R Command

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Option Constant Material Damping Coefficient Solve Before you solve, you should save (SAVE) a back-up copy of the database to a named file. Now start the solution calculations. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS Output The output from the solution consists mainly of the natural frequencies, which are printed as part of the printed output (Jobname.OUT) and also written to the mode shape file (Jobname.MODE). Output From Subspace Mode-Extraction Method There are two methods that you can use to investigate the missed mode: iteration vectors, or change the shift point used in the eigenvalue extraction. If you prefer to use the GUI to adjust the number of iteration vectors, follow these steps: Command MP,DMPR

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options. The Modal
Analysis dialog box appears.

2. Choose Subspace as the mode-extraction method and specify the number of modes to 3.
extract; then click OK. The Subspace Modal Analysis dialog box appears. Change the value of the NPAD field and click OK.

To change the shift point that was used in the eigenvalue extraction, you can issue the MODOPT,,,FREQB command. If you prefer to use the GUI to change the shift point, follow these steps:

1. Choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options. The Modal 2. 3.

Analysis dialog box appears. Choose Subspace as the mode-extraction method and specify the number of modes to extract; then click OK. The Subspace Modal Analysis dialog box appears. Change the value of the FREQB field and click OK.

Exit the Solution Processor You must now exit the solution processor. GUI: Main Menu> Finish Step3: Expanding the Modes Expanding the modes applies not just to reduced mode shapes from the reduced modeextraction method, but to full mode shapes from the other mode-extraction methods as well. 1. Reenter the ANSYS solution processor. GUI: Main Menu> Solution 2. You must explicitly leave SOLUTION (using the FINISH command) and reenter (/SOLU) before performing the expansion pass. 3. Activate the expansion pass and its options. ANSYS offers these options for the expansion pass:

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Expansion Pass Options Option Expansion On/Off No. of Expand Command GUI Path Pass EXPASS to MXPAND for MXPAND Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> ExpansionPass

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Modes

Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Single Expand> Expand Modes Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Single Expand> Expand Modes Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> ExpansionPass> Single Expand> Expand Modes

Freq. Range Expansion

Stress Calc. On/Off MXPAND

Each of these options is explained in detail below. Expansion Pass On/Off [EXPASS] Choose ON. Number of Modes to Expand [MXPAND, NMODE] Specify the number. Remember that only expanded modes can be reviewed in the postprocessor. Default is no modes expanded. Frequency Range for Expansion [MXPAND,, FREQB, FREQE] This is another way to control the number of modes expanded. If you specify a frequency range, only modes within that range are expanded. 4. Specify load step options. The only options valid in a modal expansion pass are output controls: Printed output Use this option to include any results data (expanded mode shapes, stresses, and forces) on the printed output file (Jobname.OUT). GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout Database and results file output Use this option to control the data on the results file (Jobname.RST). The FREQ field on OUTRES can be only ALL or NONE; that is, the data are written for all modes or no modes. For example, you cannot write information for every other mode. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/Results File

5. Start expansion pass calculations. The output consists of expanded mode shapes and, if requested, relative stress distributions for each mode.

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GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS 6. Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 for additional modes to be expanded (in different frequency ranges, for example). Each expansion pass is stored as a separate load step on the results file. 7. Leave SOLUTION. You can now review results in the postprocessor. Command(s): FINISH GUI: Close the Solution menu. Step4:Reviewing the Results Results from a modal analysis (that is, the modal expansion pass) are written to the structural results file, Jobname.RST. Results consist of: Natural frequencies Expanded mode shapes Relative stress and force distributions (if requested).

Points to Remember If you want to review results in POST1, the database must contain the same model for which the solution was calculated. The results file (Jobname.RST) must be available.

Reviewing Results Data 1. Read in results data from the appropriate substep. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> substep 2. Perform any desired POST1 operations. Typical modal analysis POST1 operations are explained below: Option: Listing All Frequencies You may want to list the frequencies of all modes expanded. A sample output from this command is shown below. ***** INDEX OF DATA SETS ON RESULTS FILE ***** SET TIME/FREQ LOAD STEP SUBSTEP CUMULATIVE 1 22.973 1 1 1 2 40.476 1 2 2 3 78.082 1 3 3 4 188.34 1 4 4

GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results Option: Display Deformed Shape GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Deformed Shape Option: List Master DOF GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Master DOFs> User Selected> List All

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Option: Line Element Results GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Element Table> Define Table Option: Contour Displays

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GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Solu or Element Solu Use these options to contour almost any result item, such as stresses (SX, SY, SZ...), strains (EPELX, EPELY, EPELZ...), and displacements (UX, UY, UZ...). You can also contour element table data and line element data: GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Element Table> Plot Element Table Main Menu> General Postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Line Elem Res

Option: Tabular Listings Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> solution option GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Sorted Listing> Sort Nodes Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Sorted Listing> Sort Elems Comparing Mode-Extraction Methods The basic equation solved in a typical undamped modal analysis is the classical eigenvalue problem: [k] {i} = 2 [M] {i} where: [K] = stiffness matrix {i} = mode shape vector (eigenvector) of mode i 2 = natural circular frequency of mode! (2 is the eigenvalue) [M] = mass matrix Many numerical methods are available to solve the above equation. ANSYS offers these methods: Block Lanczos method (default) Subspace method PowerDynamics method Reduced (Householder) method Unsymmetric method Damped method QR damped method

The first four, the subspace, the Block Lanczos, the power dynamics, and the reduced method are most commonly used. Table of Symmetric System Eigensolver Choices Eigensolver Application Block Lanczos To find many modes (about 40+) of large Memory Required models. Medium Disk Required Low

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Eigensolver Application Recommended when the model consists of poorly shaped solid and shell elements. This solver performs well when the model consists of shells or a combination of shells and solids. Works faster but requires about 50% more memory than subspace. Subspace To find few modes (up to about 40) of large models. Low Recommended when the model consists of well-shaped solid and shell elements. Works well if memory availability is limited. To find few modes (up to about 20) of large models. High Recommended for fast computation of eigenvalues of over 100K DOF models. On coarse mesh models, the frequencies are approximate. Missed modes are possible when repeated frequencies are present. To find all modes of small to medium models (less than 10K Low DOF). Can be used to find few modes (up to about 40) of large models with proper selection of master DOF, but accuracy of frequencies depends on the master DOF selected. High Memory Required Disk Required

Power Dynamics

Low

Reduced

Low

Subspace Method It is highly accurate because it uses the full [K] and [M] matrices. For the same reason, however, the subspace method is slower than the reduced method. This method is typically used in cases where high accuracy is required or where selecting master DOF is not practical. Matrix Reduction Matrix reduction is a way to reduce the size of the matrices of a model and perform a quicker and cheaper analysis. It is mainly used in dynamic analyses such as modal, harmonic, and transient analyses. Matrix reduction is also used in substructure analyses to generate a superelement. Matrix reduction allows you to build a detailed model, as you would for a static stress analysis, and use only a "dynamic" portion of it for a dynamic analysis. You choose the "dynamic" portion by identifying key degrees of freedom, called master degrees of freedom, that characterize the dynamic behavior of the model. The ANSYS program then calculates reduced matrices and the reduced DOF solution in terms of the master DOF. You can then expand the solution to the full DOF set by performing an expansion pass. Theoretical Basis of Matrix Reduction The ANSYS program uses the Guyan Reduction procedure to calculate the reduced matrices. The key assumption in this procedure is that for the lower frequencies, inertia forces on the slave DOF (those DOF being reduced out) are negligible compared to elastic forces transmitted by the master DOF. Therefore, the total mass of the structure is apportioned among only the master DOF. The net result is that the reduced stiffness matrix is exact, whereas the reduced mass and damping matrices are approximate.

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Guidelines for Selecting Master DOF

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You can choose masters using M and MGEN commands, or you can have the program choose masters during solution using the TOTAL command. We recommend that you do both: choose a few masters yourself, and also have the ANSYS program choose masters. This way, the program can pick up any modes that you may have missed. The following list summarizes the guidelines for selecting master DOF: The total number of master DOF should be at least twice the number of modes of interest. Choose master DOF in directions in which you expect the structure or component to vibrate. For a flat plate, for example, you should choose at least a few masters in the out-of-plane direction. In cases where motion in one direction induces a significant motion in another direction, choose master DOF in both directions.

(a) Possible out-of-plane masters for a flat plate (b) Motion in X induces motion in Y Choose masters at locations having relatively large mass or rotary inertia and relatively low stiffness. Examples of such locations are overhangs and "loosely" connected structures. Conversely, do not choose masters at locations with relatively small mass, or at locations with high stiffness (such as DOF close to constraints).

Choose masters at locations with (a) large rotary inertia, (b) large mass If your primary interest is in bending modes, you can neglect rotational and "stretching" DOF. If the degree of freedom to be chosen belongs to a coupled set, choose only the first (primary) DOF of the coupled set. Choose master DOF at locations where forces or nonzero displacements are to be applied. For axisymmetric shell models (SHELL51 or SHELL61), choose as masters the global UX degree of freedom at all nodes on those sections of the model that are parallel to or nearly parallel to the center line, so oscillatory motions between master DOF can be avoided.

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The best way to check the validity of the master DOF set is to rerun the analysis with twice (or half) the number of masters and to compare the results. Another way is to review the reduced mass distribution printed during a modal solution.

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Chapter 5 HARMONIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response (a harmonic response) in a structural system. Harmonic response analysis gives you the ability to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of your structures, thus enabling you to verify whether or not your designs will successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations. Uses for Harmonic Response Analysis Harmonic response analysis is a technique used to determine the steady-state response of a linear structure to loads that vary sinusoidally (harmonically) with time. This analysis technique calculates only the steady-state, forced vibrations of a structure. The transient vibrations, which occur at the beginning of the excitation, are not accounted for in a harmonic response analysis. Three Solution Methods Three harmonic response analysis methods are available: full, reduced, and mode superposition. The ANSYS Professional program allows only the mode superposition method. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are: The Full Method The full method is the easiest of the three methods. It uses the full system matrices to calculate the harmonic response. The matrices may be symmetric or unsymmetric. The advantages of the full method are: It is easy to use, because you don't have to worry about choosing master degrees of freedom or mode shapes. It uses full matrices, so no mass matrix approximation is involved. It allows unsymmetric matrices, which are typical of such applications as acoustics and bearing problems. It calculates all displacements and stresses in a single pass. It accepts all types of loads: nodal forces, imposed (nonzero) displacements, and element loads (pressures and temperatures). It allows effective use of solid-model loads. A disadvantage of the full method is that no prestressed option is available. The Reduced Method The reduced method enables you to condense the problem size by using master degrees of freedom and reduced matrices. After the displacements at the master DOF have been calculated, the solution can be expanded to the original full DOF set. The advantages of this method are:

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It is faster and less expensive compared to the full method when you are using the frontal solver. Prestressing effects can be included.

The disadvantages of the reduced method are: The initial solution calculates only the displacements at the master DOF. A second step, known as the expansion pass, is required for a complete displacement, stress, and force solution. (However, the expansion pass might be optional for some applications.) Element loads (pressures, temperatures, etc.) cannot be applied. All loads must be applied at user-defined master degrees of freedom. (This limits the use of solid-model loads.)

The Mode Superposition Method The mode superposition method sums factored mode shapes (eigenvectors) from a modal analysis to calculate the structure's response. Its advantages are: It is faster and less expensive than either the reduced or the full method for many problems. Element loads applied in the preceding modal analysis can be applied in the harmonic response analysis via the LVSCALE command, unless the modal analysis was done using PowerDynamics. It allows solutions to be clustered about the structure's natural frequencies. This results in a smoother, more accurate tracing of the response curve. Prestressing effects can be included. It accepts modal damping (damping ratio as a function of frequency).

Disadvantages of the mode superposition method are: Imposed (nonzero) displacements cannot be applied. When you are using PowerDynamics for the modal analysis, initial conditions cannot have previously-applied loads.

Restrictions Common to All Three Methods All three methods are subject to certain common restrictions: All loads must be sinusoidally time-varying. All loads must have the same frequency. No nonlinearities are permitted. Transient effects are not calculated.

Harmonic Response Analysis We will describe how to do a harmonic response analysis using the full method: Full Harmonic Response Analysis The procedure for a full harmonic response analysis consists of three main steps: 1. Build the model. 2. Apply loads and obtain the solution. 3. Review the results.

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Step1:Build the Model Points to Remember

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Both Young's modulus (EX) (or stiffness in some form) and density (DENS) (or mass in some form) must be defined. Material properties may be linear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent. Nonlinear material properties, if any, are ignored. Only linear behavior is valid in a harmonic response analysis. Nonlinear elements, if any, will be treated as linear elements. If you include contact elements, for example, their stiffnesses are calculated based on their initial status and are never changed. For a full harmonic response analysis, you can define frequency-dependent elastic material properties by using TB,ELASTIC and TBFIELD; use TB,SDAMP and TBFIELD to define your structural damping coefficients.

Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution 1. Enter the ANSYS Solution Processor

Command(s): /SOLU GUI: Main Menu> Solution 2. Define the Analysis Type and Options

ANSYS offers these options for a harmonic response analysis: Analysis Types and Options Option New Analysis Analysis Type: Response Solution Method Solution Listing Format Mass Matrix Formulation Command GUI Path ANTYPE Harmonic ANTYPE HROPT HROUT LUMPM Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis Main Menu> Solution> Analysis> Harmonic Analysis Type> New

Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Analysis Options

Each of these options is explained in detail below. Option: New Analysis (ANTYPE) Choose New Analysis. Restarts are not valid in a harmonic response analysis; if you need to apply additional harmonic loads, do a new analysis each time. Option: Analysis Type: Harmonic Response (ANTYPE) Choose Harmonic Response as the analysis type. Option: Solution Method (HROPT) Choose one of the following solution methods:

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Full method Reduced method Mode superposition method Option: Solution Listing Format (HROUT) This option determines how the harmonic displacement solution is listed in the printed output (Jobname.OUT). You can choose between real and imaginary parts (default), and amplitudes and phase angles. Option: Mass Matrix Formulation (LUMPM) Use this option to specify the default formulation (which is element dependent) or lumped mass approximation. We recommend the default formulation for most applications. However, for some problems involving "skinny" structures such as slender beams or very thin shells, the lumped mass approximation often yields better results. Also, the lumped mass approximation can result in a shorter run time and lower memory requirements. After you complete the fields on the Harmonic Analysis Options dialog box, click on OK to reach a second Harmonic Analysis dialog box, where you choose an equation solver. Option: Equation Solver (EQSLV) You can choose the frontal solver (default), the sparse direct solver (SPARSE), the Jacobi Conjugate Gradient (JCG) solver, or the Incomplete Cholesky Conjugate Gradient (ICCG) solver. The frontal direct solver or sparse direct solver is recommended for most structural models. When using a direct solver to solve a relatively large problem, choose the sparse solver over the frontal solver. Apply Loads on the Model A harmonic analysis, by definition, assumes that any applied load varies harmonically (sinusoidally) with time. To completely specify a harmonic load, three pieces of information are usually required: the amplitude, the phase angle, and the forcing frequency range. The amplitude is the maximum value of the load, which you specify using the commands. The phase angle is a measure of the time by which the load lags (or leads) a frame of reference. The forcing frequency range is the frequency range of the harmonic load. Loads and Listing Loads Using the GUI The following options are available for a harmonic response analysis: Load Step Options Option General Options Number of Harmonic NSUBST Solutions Stepped or Ramped KBC Loads Dynamics Options Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Freq and Substeps Step Opts> Command GUI Path

Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time - Time Step or Freq and Substeps

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Option Forcing Range Damping Command Frequency HARFRQ GUI Path Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Freq and Substeps Load Step Step Opts> Opts>

ALPHAD, BETAD, Main Menu> Solution> DMPRAT Time/Frequenc> Damping MP,DAMP, MP,DMPR

Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other> Change Mat Props> Material Models> Structural> Damping Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/ Results File Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Integration Pt

Output Control Options Printed Output OUTPR

Database and Results OUTRES File Output Extrapolation Results Step4. of ERESX

Review the Results

The results data for a harmonic analysis are the same as the data for a basic structural analysis with the following additions: If you defined damping in the structure, the response will be out-of-phase with the loads. All results are then complex in nature and are stored in terms of real and imaginary parts. Complex results will also be produced if out-of-phase loads were applied. Primary Data: Nodal displacements (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY, ROTZ) Derived Data: Nodal and element stresses Nodal and element strains Element force Nodal reaction forces Etc.

Postprocessors You can review these results using either POST26 or POST1. POST1 is used to review results over the entire model at specific frequencies. POST26 allows you to review results at specific points in the model over the entire frequency range.

Using POST26 POST26 works with tables of result item versus frequency, known as variables. Each variable is assigned a reference number, with variable number 1 reserved for frequency. 1. Define the variables using these options: GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables 2. The NSOL command is for primary data (nodal displacements), the ESOL command for derived data (element solution data, such as stresses), and the RFORCE command for reaction force data. To specify the total force, static component of the total force, damping component, or the inertia component, use the FORCE command.

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37 3. Graph the variables (versus frequency or any other variable). Then use PLCPLX to work with
just the amplitude, phase angle, real part, or imaginary part. Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings> Graph Get a listing of the variable. To list just the extreme values, use the EXTREM command. Then use the PRCPLX command to work with amplitude and phase angle or real and imaginary part. Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Variables> List Extremes GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Extremes Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Settings> List Using POST1 1. Read in results for the desired harmonic solution. 2. Display the deformed shape of the structure, contours of stresses, strains, etc., or vector plots of vector items Option: Tabular Listings Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Nodal Solution GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Element Solution Main Menu> General Postproc> List Results> Reaction Solution Use the NSORT and ESORT commands to sort the data before listing them.

4.

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Chapter 6 Transient Dynamic Analysis Transient dynamic analysis (sometimes called time-history analysis) is a technique used to determine the dynamic response of a structure under the action of any general time-dependent loads. You can use this type of analysis to determine the time-varying displacements, strains, stresses, and forces in a structure as it responds to any combination of static, transient, and harmonic loads. The time scale of the loading is such that the inertia or damping effects are considered to be important. If the inertia and damping effects are not important, you might be able to use a static analysis instead. The basic equation of motion solved by a transient dynamic analysis is

At any given time, t, these equations can be thought of as a set of "static" equilibrium equations that also take into account inertia forces and damping forces The ANSYS program uses the Newmark time integration method or an improved method called HHT to solve these equations at discrete time points. The time increment between successive time points is called the integration time step. Preparing for a Transient Dynamic Analysis A transient dynamic analysis is more involved than a static analysis because it generally requires more computer resources and more of your resources, in terms of the engineering time involved. You can save a significant amount of these resources by doing some preliminary work to understand the physics of the problem. For example, you can: 1. Analyze a simpler model first. A model of beams, masses, and springs can provide good insight into the problem at minimal cost. This simpler model may be all you need to determine the dynamic response of the structure. 2. If you are including nonlinearities, try to understand how they affect the structure's response by doing a static analysis first. In some cases, nonlinearities need not be included in the dynamic analysis. 3. Understand the dynamics of the problem. By doing a modal analysis, which calculates the natural frequencies and mode shapes, you can learn how the structure responds when those modes are excited. The natural frequencies are also useful for calculating the correct integration time step. 4. For a nonlinear problem, consider substructuring the linear portions of the model to reduce analysis costs.

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Three Solution Methods Three methods are available to do a transient dynamic analysis: full, mode superposition, and reduced. The ANSYS Professional program allows only the mode superposition method. Before we study the details of how to implement each of these methods, we will examine the advantages and disadvantages of each. Full Method The full method uses the full system matrices to calculate the transient response (no matrix reduction). It is the most general of the three methods because it allows all types of nonlinearities to be included (plasticity, large deflections, large strain, and so on). Note: If you do not want to include any nonlinearities, you should consider using one of the other methods because the full method is also the most expensive method of the three. The advantages of the full method are: It is easy to use, because you do not have to worry about choosing master degrees of freedom or mode shapes. It allows all types of nonlinearities. It uses full matrices, so no mass matrix approximation is involved. All displacements and stresses are calculated in a single pass. It accepts all types of loads: nodal forces, imposed (nonzero) displacements (although not recommended), and element loads (pressures and temperatures) and allows tabular boundary condition specification via TABLE type array parameters. It allows effective use of solid-model loads.

Mode Superposition Method The mode superposition method sums factored mode shapes (eigenvectors) from a modal analysis to calculate the structure's response. This is the only method available in the ANSYS Professional program. Its advantages are: It is faster and less expensive than the reduced or the full method for many problems. Element loads applied in the preceding modal analysis can be applied in the transient dynamic analysis via the LVSCALE command, unless the modal analysis was done using PowerDynamics. It accepts modal damping (damping ratio as a function of mode number).

The disadvantages of the mode superposition method are: The time step must remain constant throughout the transient, so automatic time stepping is not allowed. The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap condition). It does not accept imposed (nonzero) displacements.

Reduced Method The reduced method condenses the problem size by using master degrees of freedom and reduced matrices. After the displacements at the master DOF have been calculated, ANSYS expands the solution to the original full DOF set. The advantage of the reduced method is:

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It is faster and less expensive than the full method. The disadvantages of the reduced method are: The initial solution calculates only the displacements at the master DOF. A second step, known as the expansion pass, is required for a complete displacement, stress, and force solution. (However, the expansion pass might not be needed for some applications.) Element loads (pressures, temperatures, and so on) cannot be applied. Accelerations, however, are allowed. All loads must be applied at user-defined master degrees of freedom. (This limits the use of solid-model loads.) The time step must remain constant throughout the transient, so automatic time stepping is not allowed. The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap condition).

How to Do a Transient Dynamic Analysis Full Transient Dynamic Analysis The procedure for a full transient dynamic analysis (available in the ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, and ANSYS Structural products) consists of these steps:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Build the Model Establish Initial Conditions Set Solution Controls Apply the Loads Start the Transient Solution Review the Results

Step1:Build the Model The basic steps remain the same as in Harmonic Response Analysis. Points to Remember Keep the following points in mind when building a model for a full transient dynamic analysis: You can use both linear and nonlinear elements. Both Young's modulus (EX) (or stiffness in some form) and density (DENS) (or mass in some form) must be defined. Material properties may be linear or nonlinear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent.

Some comments on mesh density: The mesh should be fine enough to resolve the highest mode shape of interest. Regions where stresses or strains are of interest require a relatively finer mesh than regions where only displacements are of interest. If you want to include nonlinearities, the mesh should be able to capture the effects of the nonlinearities. For example, plasticity requires a reasonable integration point density (and therefore a fine element mesh) in areas with high plastic deformation gradients. If you are interested in wave propagation effects (for example, a bar dropped exactly on its end), the mesh should be fine enough to resolve the wave. A general guideline is to have at least 20 elements per wavelength along the direction of the wave.

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Step2: Establish Initial Conditions

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Before you can perform a full transient dynamic analysis on a model, you need to understand how to establish initial conditions and use load steps. A transient analysis, by definition, involves loads that are functions of time. To specify such loads, you need to divide the load-versus-time curve into suitable load steps. Each "corner" on the load-time curve may be one load step, as shown in Examples of Load-Versus-Time Curves

The first load step you apply is usually to establish initial conditions. You then specify the loads and load step options for the second and subsequent transient load steps. For each load step, you need to specify both load values and time values, along with other load step options such as whether to step or ramp the loads, use automatic time stepping, and so on. You then write each load step to a file and solve all load steps together. Establishing initial conditions is described below; the remaining tasks are described later in this chapter. The first step in applying transient loads is to establish initial conditions (that is, the condition at Time = 0). A transient dynamic analysis requires two sets of initial conditions (because the equations being solved are of second order): initial displacement (uo) and initial velocity . If no special action is

taken, both uo and are assumed to be zero. Initial accelerations are always assumed to be zero, but you can specify nonzero initial accelerations by applying appropriate acceleration loads over a small time interval. Step3: Set Solution Controls This step for a transient dynamic analysis is the same as for a basic structural analysis. If you need to establish initial conditions for the full transient dynamic analysis, you must do so for the first load step of the analysis. You can then cycle through the Solution Controls dialog box additional times to set individual load step options for the second and subsequent load steps. Using the Basic Tab The Basic tab is active when you access the dialog box. The controls that appear on the Basic tab provide the minimum amount of data that ANSYS needs for the analysis. Once you are satisfied with the settings on the Basic tab, you do not need to progress

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through the remaining tabs unless you want to adjust the default settings for the more advanced controls. As soon as you click OK on any tab of the dialog box, the settings are applied to the ANSYS database and the dialog box closes. Special considerations for setting these options in a full transient analysis include:

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When setting ANTYPE and NLGEOM, choose Small Displacement Transient if you are performing a new analysis and you want to ignore large deformation effects such as large deflection, large rotation, and large strain. Choose Large Displacement Transient if you expect large deflections (as in the case of a long, slender bar under bending) or large strains (as in a metal-forming problem). Choose Restart Current Analysis if you want to restart a failed nonlinear analysis, or you have previously completed a static prestress or a full transient dynamic analysis, and you want to extend the time-history. When setting AUTOTS, remember that this load step option (which is also known as time-step optimization in a transient analysis) increases or decreases the integration time step based on the response of the structure. For most problems, we recommend that you turn on automatic time stepping, with upper and lower limits for the integration time step. These limits, specified using DELTIM or NSUBST, help to limit the range of variation of the time step; see Automatic Time Stepping for more information. The default is ON. NSUBST and DELTIM are load step options that specify the integration time step for a transient analysis. The integration time step is the time increment used in the time integration of the equations of motion. You can specify the time increment directly or indirectly (that is, in terms of the number of substeps). The time step size determines the accuracy of the solution: the smaller its value, the higher the accuracy. You should consider several factors in order to calculate a "good" integration time step. When setting OUTRES, keep this caution in mind:

Special considerations for setting these options in a full transient analysis include: TIMINT is a dynamic load step option that specifies whether time integration effects are on or off. Time integration effects must be turned on for inertia and damping effects to be included in the analysis (otherwise a static solution is performed), so the default is to include time integration effects. This option is useful when beginning a transient analysis from an initial static solution; that is, the first load steps are solved with the time integration effects off. ALPHAD (alpha, or mass, damping) and BETAD (beta, or stiffness, damping) are dynamic load step options for specifying damping options. Damping in some form is present in most structures and should be included in your analysis. See Damping Option for other damping options. TRNOPT (TINTOPT) specifies the time integration method to be used. The default is Newmark method. TINTP is a dynamic load step option that specifies transient integration parameters. Transient integration parameters control the nature of the Newmark and HHT time integration techniques.

Set Additional Solution Options The additional solution options that you can set for a full transient analysis are mostly the same as the ones you can set for a static structural analysis. For a general description of what additional solution options are, along with descriptions of those options that are the same: Set Additional Solution Options Stress Stiffening Effects Newton-Raphson Option

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Printed Output Extrapolation of Results

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Additional solution options for a full transient analysis that differ from those for a static analysis, or have different descriptions are presented in the following sections. You may also use the NLHIST command to monitor results of interest in real time during solution. Before starting the solution, you can request nodal data such as displacements or reaction forces at specific nodes. You can also request element nodal data such as stresses and strains at specific elements to be graphed. Pair-based contact data are also available. The result data are written to a file named Jobname.nlh. For example, a reaction force-deflection curve could indicate when possible buckling behavior occurs. Nodal results and contact results are monitored at every converged substep while element nodal data are written as specified via the OUTRES setting. You can also track results during batch runs. To execute, either access the ANSYS Launcher and select File Tracking from the Tools menu, or type nlhist100 at the command line. Use the supplied file browser to navigate to your Jobname.nlh file, and click on it to invoke the tracking utilty. You can use this utilty to read the file at any time, even after the solution is complete. To use this option, use either of these methods: Command(s): NLHIST GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Results Tracking Prestress Effects You may include prestress effects in your analysis. This requires element files from a previous static (or transient) analysis; GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Damping Option Use this load step option to include damping. Damping in some form is present in most structures and should be included in your analysis. In addition to setting ALPHAD and BETAD on the Solution Controls dialog box (as described in Using the Transient Tab), you can specify the following additional forms of damping for a full transient dynamic analysis: Material-dependent beta damping (MP,DAMP) Element damping (COMBIN7, and so on) To use the MP form of damping: GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Other> Change Mat Props> Material Models> Structural> Damping

Mass Matrix Formulation Use this analysis option to specify a lumped mass matrix formulation. We recommend the default formulation for most applications. However, for some problems involving "skinny" structures, such as

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slender beams or very thin shells, the lumped mass approximation might provide better results. Also, the lumped mass approximation can result in a shorter run time and lower memory requirements. GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Unabridged Menu> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Step4: Apply the Loads

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You are now ready to apply loads for the analysis. Except for inertia loads, you can define loads either on the solid model (keypoints, lines, and areas) or on the finite Step5: Start the Transient Solution Use one of these methods to start the transient solution: GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Solve> From LS Files Step6: Review the Results You review results for a full transient analysis in the same way that you review results for most structural analyses. Postprocessors You can review these results using either POST26, which is the time-history postprocessor, or POST1, which is the general postprocessor. POST26 is used to review results at specific points in the model as functions of time. POST1 is used to review results over the entire model at specific time points. Some typical postprocessing operations for a transient dynamic analysis are explained below. Using POST26 POST26 works with tables of result item versus time, known as variables. Each variable is assigned a reference number, with variable number 1 reserved for time. Define the variables. GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Define Variables In the mode superposition or reduced methods, only static force is available with the FORCE command. Graph or list the variables. By reviewing the time-history results at strategic points throughout the model, you can identify the critical time points for further POST1 postprocessing. Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> Graph Variables GUI: Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Variables Main Menu> TimeHist Postpro> List Extremes

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Using POST1 Read in model data from the database file. GUI: Utility Menu> File> Resume from

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Read in the desired set of results. Use the SET command to identify the data set by load step and substep numbers or by time. GUI: Main Menu> General Postproc> Read Results> By Time/Freq

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Chapter 7 Steady-State Thermal Analysis The ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS FLOTRAN, and ANSYS Professional products support steady-state thermal analysis. A steady-state thermal analysis calculates the effects of steady thermal loads on a system or component. Engineer/analysts often perform a steady-state analysis before doing a transient thermal analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis also can be the last step of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects have diminished. You can use steady-state thermal analysis to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads include the following: Convections Radiation Heat flow rates Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area) Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume) Constant temperature boundaries A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material properties; or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal properties of most material do vary with temperature, so the analysis usually is nonlinear. Including radiation effects also makes the analysis nonlinear. Available Elements for Thermal Analysis The ANSYS and ANSYS Professional programs include about 40 elements (described below) to help you perform steady-state thermal analyses. Element names are shown in uppercase 2-D Solid Elements Element PLANE35 PLANE55 PLANE75 PLANE77 PLANE78 Dimens. 2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D Shape or Characteristic Triangle, 6-node Quadrilateral, 4-node Harmonic, 4-node Quadrilateral, 8-node Harmonic, 8-node DOFs Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node)

3-D Solid Elements

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Element SOLID70 SOLID87 SOLID90 Dimens. 3-D 3-D 3-D Shape or Characteristic Brick, 8-node Tetrahedron, 10-node Brick, 20-node DOFs Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node)

Radiation Link Elements Element LINK31 Dimens. 2-D or 3-D Shape or Characteristic Line, 2-node DOFs Temperature (at each node)

Conducting Bar Elements Element LINK32 LINK33 Dimens. 2-D 3-D Shape or Characteristic Line, 2-node Line, 2-node DOFs Temperature (at each node) Temperature (at each node)

Convection Link Elements Element LINK34 Dimens. 3-D Shape or Characteristic Line, 2-node DOFs Temperature (at each node)

Shell Elements Element SHELL57 SHELL131 SHELL132 Dimens. 3-D 3-D 3-D Shape or Characteristic Quadrilateral, 4-node Quadrilateral, 4-node Quadrilateral, 8-node DOFs Temperature (at each node) Multiple temperatures (at each node) Multiple temperatures (at each node)

Specialty Elements Element MASS71 Dimens. Shape Characteristic or DOFs Temperature 4- Temperature, structural displacement, rotation, pressure

1-D, 2-D, or 3- Mass, one-node D Control node element,

COMBIN37 1-D

Applying Loads and Obtaining the Solution You must define the analysis type and options, apply loads to the model, specify load step options, and initiate the finite element solution.

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Defining the Analysis Type During this phase of the analysis, you must first define the analysis type:

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In the GUI, choose menu path Main Menu Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> Steady-state (static). If this is a new analysis, issue the command ANTYPE,STATIC,NEW. If you want to restart a previous analysis (for example, to specify additional loads), issue the command ANTYPE,STATIC,REST. You can restart an analysis only if the files Jobname.ESAV and Jobname.DB from the previous run are available.

Applying Loads You can apply loads either on the solid model (keypoints, lines, and areas) or on the finite element model (nodes and elements). You can specify five types of thermal loads: Constant Temperatures (TEMP) These are DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries to impose a known, fixed temperature. Heat Flow Rate (HEAT) These are concentrated nodal loads. Use them mainly in line-element models (conducting bars, convection links, etc.) where you cannot specify convections and heat fluxes. A positive value of heat flow rate indicates heat flowing into the node (that is, the element gains heat). If both TEMP and HEAT are specified at a node, the temperature constraint prevails. Convections (CONV) Convections are surface loads applied on exterior surfaces of the model to account for heat lost to (or gained from) a surrounding fluid medium. They are available only for solids and shells. In line-element models, you can specify convections through the convection link element (LINK34). Heat Fluxes (HFLUX) Heat fluxes are also surface loads. Use them when the amount of heat transfer across a surface (heat flow rate per area) is known, or is calculated through a FLOTRAN CFD analysis. A positive value of heat flux indicates heat flowing into the element. Heat flux is used only with solids and shells. An element face may have either CONV or HFLUX (but not both) specified as a surface load. If you specify both on the same element face, ANSYS uses what was specified last. Heat Generation Rates (HGEN) You apply heat generation rates as "body loads" to represent heat generated within an element, for example by a chemical reaction or an electric current. Heat generation rates have units of heat flow rate per unit volume. Thermal Analysis Load Types Load Type Category Cmd Family GUI Path

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Load Type Category Cmd Family F SF GUI Path Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Heat Flow Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Convection Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Heat Flux Main Menu> Solution> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Heat Generat

Heat Flow Rate (HEAT, HBOT, Forces HE2, HE3, . . . HTOP) Convection (CONV), Heat Flux (HFLUX) Surface Loads

Heat Generation Rate (HGEN)

Body Loads BF

Additional primary variables that are available using functions are listed below. Tsurf (TS) (element surface temperature for SURF151 or SURF152 elements) Density (material property DENS) Specific heat (material property C) Thermal conductivity (material property KXX) Thermal conductivity (material property KYY) Thermal conductivity (material property KZZ) Viscosity (material property VISC) Emissivity (material property EMIS)

Specifying Load Step Options For a thermal analysis, you can specify general options, nonlinear options, and output controls. Specifying Load Step Options Option General Options Time Number of Time Steps Time Step Size TIME NSUBST DELTIM Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Time and Substps Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step Step Step Step Step Opts> Opts> Opts> Opts> Command GUI Path

Stepped or Ramped Loads KBC Nonlinear Options Max. No. of Equilibrium NEQIT Iterations Automatic Time Stepping AUTOTS Convergence Tolerances Solution Options CNVTOL

Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Equilibrium Iter Main Menu> Solution> Load Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step Step Opts>

Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Convergence Crit Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Criteria to Stop Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear>

Termination NCNV LNSRCH

Line Search Option

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Option Command GUI Path Line Search Predictor-Corrector Option PRED Output Control Options Printed Output OUTPR Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/Results File Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Integration Pt Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Predictor

Database and Results File OUTRES Output Extrapolation of Results ERESX

Defining Analysis Options Next, you define the analysis options. Possible options include: The Newton-Raphson option (used only in nonlinear analyses). This option specifies how often the tangent matrix is updated during solution. You can specify one of these values: Program-chosen (default; recommended for thermal analysis) Full Modified Initial conductivity Selecting an equation solver. You can specify any of these values: Frontal solver Jacobi Conjugate Gradient (JCG) solver JCG out-of-memory solver Incomplete Cholesky Conjugate Gradient (ICCG) solver Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient solver (PCG)

Frontal Solver The frontal (or wavefront) solution procedure is discussed by Irons and Melosh and Bamford. The number of equations which are active after any element has been processed during the solution procedure is called the wavefront at that point. The method used places a wavefront restriction on the problem definition, which depends upon the amount of memory available for a given problem. Many thousand DOFs (degrees of freedom) on the wavefront can be handled in memory on some currently available computers. Wavefront limits tend to be restrictive only for the analysis of arbitrary 3-D solids. In the wavefront procedure, the sequence in which the elements are processed in the solver (the element order) is crucial to minimize the size of the wavefront. The computer time required for the solution procedure is proportional to the square of the mean wavefront size. Therefore, it is advantageous to be able to estimate and minimize the wavefront size. The wavefront size is determined by the sequence in which the elements are arranged. The node numbers of all elements are scanned to determine which element is the last to use each node. As the total system of equations is assembled from the element matrices, the equations for a node which occurs for the last time are algebraically solved in terms of the remaining unknowns and eliminated from the assembled matrix by Gauss elimination. The active equations are represented by:

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where: Kkj = stiffness term relating the force at DOF k to the displacement at DOF j uj = nodal displacement of DOF j Fk = nodal force of DOF k k = equation (row) number j = column number L = number of equations To eliminate a typical equation i = k, the equation is first normalized to

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This is rewritten as:

where:

Here Kii is known as the pivot. If the absolute value of K ii is sufficiently small, it is numerically indistinguishable from zero. This usually means the structure is insufficiently constrained (or needs more master DOFs for reduced analyses). Transient Thermal Analysis The ANSYS Multiphysics, ANSYS Mechanical, ANSYS Professional, and ANSYS FLOTRAN products support transient thermal analysis. Transient thermal analysis determines temperatures and other thermal quantities that vary over time. Engineers commonly use temperatures that a transient thermal analysis calculates as input to structural analyses for thermal stress evaluations. Many heat transfer applications - heat treatment problems, nozzles, engine blocks, piping systems, pressure vessels, etc. - involve transient thermal analyses. A transient thermal analysis follows basically the same procedures as a steady-state thermal analysis. The main difference is that most applied loads in a transient analysis are functions of time. To specify time-dependent loads, you can divide the load-versus-time curve into load steps. For each load step, you need to specify both load values and time values, along with other load step options such as stepped or ramped loadsautomatic time stepping, etc. You then write each load step to a file and solve all load steps together.

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Elements and Commands Used in Transient Thermal Analysis Transient thermal analyses use the same elements as steady-state thermal analyses. Tasks in a Transient Thermal Analysis The procedure for doing a transient thermal analysis has three main tasks: Build the model. Apply loads and obtain the solution. Review the results.

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Building the Model To build the model, you start by specifying the jobname and a title for your analysis. If you are running ANSYS interactively and using its GUI, you also set preferences for the options you want to display. Then, you use the ANSYS preprocessor (PREP7) to do these tasks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define the element types. If necessary, define element real constants. Define material properties. Define the model geometry. Mesh the model.

Applying Loads and Obtaining a Solution In a transient analysis, the first steps in applying transient loads are to define the analysis type and then establish initial conditions for your analysis. Defining the Analysis Type To specify the analysis type, do either of the following: In the ANSYS GUI, choose menu path Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> Transient. If this is a new analysis, issue the command ANTYPE,TRANSIENT,NEW. If you want to restart a previous analysis (for example, to specify additional loads), issue the command ANTYPE,TRANSIENT,REST. You can restart an analysis only if the files Jobname.ESAV and Jobname.DB from the previous run are available. Establishing Initial Conditions for Your Analysis To establish the initial conditions, you may need to obtain a steady-state solution, or you simply may need to specify a uniform starting temperature at all nodes. Specifying a Uniform Temperature If you know that the model starts at ambient temperature, specify that temperature at all nodes. To do so, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Settings> Uniform Temp

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GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Settings> Reference Temp Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Thermal> Temperature> On GUI: Nodes Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Delete> Thermal> Temperature> On GUI: Nodes Specifying a Non-Uniform Starting Temperature In a transient thermal analysis (but not in a steady-state thermal analysis), you can specify one or more non-uniform starting temperatures at a node or a group of nodes. To do so, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Initial Condit'n> Define GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Initial Condit'n> List Picked If the initial temperature distribution is not uniform and is not known, you will need to do a steadystate thermal analysis to establish the initial conditions. To do so, perform these steps: Specify the appropriate steady-state loads (such as imposed temperatures, convection surfaces, etc.). Specify TIMINT,OFF,THERM (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Integration) to turn off transient effects. Use the TIME command (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Step) to define a value of time. Typically, the time value is extremely small (e.g. 1E-6 seconds). Specify ramped or stepped loading using the KBC command (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Step). If ramped loading is defined, the effect of the resulting temperature gradients with respect to time should be considered. Write the load data to a load step file using the LSWRITE command (Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Write LS File).

Specifying Load Step Options For a thermal analysis, you can specify general options, nonlinear options, and output controls. Defining Time-stepping Strategy To use the load step method, follow this procedure: 1. Specify the time at the end of the load step using one of these methods: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time GUI: Step 2. Specify whether your loads are stepped or ramped. Use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time and Sub Stps

GUI:

GUI: Utility Menu> Parameters> Array Parameters> Define/Edit GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Ouput Ctrls> DB/Results File

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General Options General options include the following: Solution control option

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This option turns solution control heuristic ON/OFF for thermal analysis. With this option turned ON, you normally specify the number of substeps (NSUBST) or the time step size (DELTIM), and the time at the end of the load step (TIME). The remainder of the solution control commands then default to their optimal values for the particular thermal problem. To turn solution control ON or OFF, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Analysis Type> Sol'n Controls Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time and Substps GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Freq and Substps or Time and Substps GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time Step Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time and Substps Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Time-Time GUI: Step Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/ Frequenc> Freq and Substps GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Results Tracking Nonlinear Options For single-field nonlinear thermal analysis, ANSYS allows a choice of three solution options. The Full option corresponds to the default full Newton-Raphson algorithm. The Quasi option corresponds to only selective reforming of the thermal matrix during solution of the nonlinear thermal problem. The matrix is only reformed if the nonlinear material properties changed by a significant amount (user-controlled). This option performs no equilibrium iterations between time steps. Material properties are evaluated at the temperatures at the beginning of the load step. The Linear option forms only one thermal matrix at the first time step of a load step. This option should only be used to obtain a quick approximate solution. These options in ANSYS can be selected by the THOPT command. GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Analysis Type> Analysis Options Specify nonlinear load step options only if nonlinearities are present. Nonlinear options include the following: Number of equilibrium iterations This option specifies the maximum allowable number of equilibrium iterations per substep. With SOLCONTROL,ON, this command defaults to between 15 and 26 iterations, depending upon the physics of the problem.

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To specify the number of equilibrium iterations, use either of the following:

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GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Equilibrium Iter Automatic Time Stepping Also called time step optimization in a transient analysis, automatic time stepping allows ANSYS to determine the size of load increments between substeps. It also increases or decreases the time step size during solution, depending on how the model responds. In a transient thermal analysis, the response checked is the thermal eigenvalue. For the THOPT,Quasi option, the time step size is also adjusted based on property change during solution. If the eigenvalue is small, a larger time step is used and vice versa. Other things considered in determining the next time step are the number of equilibrium iterations used for the previous time step, and changes in the status of nonlinear elements. For most problems, you should turn on automatic time stepping and set upper and lower limits for the integration time step. The limits, set via the NSUBST command or DELTIM command, or the menu path shown below, help to control how much the time step varies. GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step

Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step

To specify automatic time stepping, use either of the following: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time and Substps GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time-Time Step To change the default values used for automatic time stepping, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time Integration

Time integration effects These load step options determine whether the analysis includes transient effects such as structural inertia and thermal capacitance. To specify time integration effects, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time Integration

Transient integration parameters These parameters control the nature of your time integration scheme and specify the criteria for automatic time stepping. To minimize inaccuracies in a solution, you can set the transient integration parameter (the THETA value) to 1.0. To specify transient integration parameters, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Time/Frequenc> Time Integration

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Convergence tolerances The ANSYS program considers a nonlinear solution to be converged whenever specified convergence criteria are met. Convergence checking may be based on temperatures, heat flow rates, or both. You specify a typical value for the desired item (VALUE field on the CNVTOL command) and a tolerance about the typical value (TOLER field). The convergence criterion is then given by VALUE x TOLER. For instance, if you specify 500 as the typical value of temperature and 0.001 as the tolerance, the convergence criterion for temperature is 0.5 degrees. For temperatures, ANSYS compares the change in nodal temperatures between successive equilibrium iterations (T = Ti - Ti-1) to the convergence criterion. Using the above example, the solution is converged when the temperature difference at every node from one iteration to the next is less than 0.5 degrees. For heat flow rates, ANSYS compares the out-of-balance load vector to the convergence criterion. The out-of-balance load vector represents the difference between the applied heat flows and the internal (calculated) heat flows. To specify convergence tolerances, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Convergence Crit As nonlinear thermal analysis proceeds, ANSYS computes convergence norms with corresponding convergence criteria each equilibrium iteration. Available in both batch and interactive sessions, the Graphical Solution Tracking (GST) feature displays the computed convergence norms and criteria while the solution is in process. By default, GST is ON for interactive sessions and OFF for batch runs. To turn GST on or off, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Solution> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Grph Solu Track Termination settings for unconverged solutions If the ANSYS program cannot converge the solution within the specified number of equilibrium iterations, ANSYS either stops the solution or moves on to the next load step, depending on what you specify as the stopping criteria. To halt an unconverged solution, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Criteria to Stop Line search The line search option allows ANSYS to perform a line search with the Newton-Raphson method. To use the line search option, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Line Search Predictor-corrector option

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This option activates the predictor-corrector option for the degree of freedom solution at the first equilibrium iteration of each substep. To use the predictor option, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Nonlinear> Predictor Output Controls This class of load step options enables you to control output. Output controls options are as follows: Control printed output

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This option enables you to include any results data in the printed output file (Jobname.OUT). To control printed output, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Solu Printout Control database and results file output This option controls what data goes to the results file (Jobname.RTH). To control database and results file output, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> DB/Results File Extrapolate results:This option allows you to review element integration point results by copying them to the nodes instead of extrapolating them. (Extrapolation is the default.) To extrapolate results, use either of the following: GUI: Main Menu> Preprocessor> Loads> Load Step Opts> Output Ctrls> Integration Pt

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Abbreviation & Units Abbreviation List Abbreviation and Symbol List Abbreviation d MDOF E f F g G h H Hc I ITS J k KI l L m M P, p q r R t T u V, v W , yp Explanation Diameter Master Degrees of freedom Young's modulus of elasticity Frequency of vibration, Friction factor Force Gravitational acceleration Shear modulus Average convection coefficient, Height Magnetic field intensity Coercive force Moment of inertia, Electrical current Integration time step Torsional moment of inertia, Electrical current density Spring constant, Thermal conductivity Stress intensity factor Length Inductance, Length Mass Moment Pressure Heat flow rate Radius Electrical resistance, Reaction Thickness, Time Temperature Displacement Velocity, Voltage Weight Coefficient of thermal expansion, Thermal diffusivity Weight density Deflection Strain, Emissivity, Permittivity Poisson's ratio Angle Damping ratio Magnetic permeability, Viscosity, Coefficient of friction Mass density, Electrical resistivity Yield stress

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Abbreviation Explanation Period of vibration, Shear stress Circular frequency of vibration, Fluid flow rate, Angular velocity Electrical conductivity, direct stress

Units Abbreviation List Abbreviation A A BTU cm C C F F ft G gm H Hz hr in kg kip ksi m mm MPa N Pa lb psi psig rad rpm Units Ampere t-Ampere-turns British Thermal Unit centimeter Centigrade Coulomb Fahrenheit Farad feet Gauss gram Henry Hertz hour inch Kilogram Kilopound (1000 pound force) Kilopounds per square inch meter millimeter Megapascal Newton Pascal pound force pounds per square inch pounds per square inch (gauge) radian revolutions per minute

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