Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bernhard Lichtberger
Track Compendium
Formation, Permanent Way,
Maintenance, Economics
Dr. Bernhard Lichtberger
Eurail
Eu
press
pr
ess
Acknowledgements
I want to thank Roland Hogl who helped me to work out the illustrations. My thanks are also due
to Lothar Marx, Rainer Wenty, Helmut Misar, Johann Dumser, Leopold Frhwirt, Alf Lichtberger,
Markus Schnetz, Michael Malacek, Leopold Gruber, Johann Kohel, Jrgen Dehne, Klaus Riessberger and many others not mentioned here by name who helped me with their suggestions and
materials.
Special thanks are due to Kornelia Haindl, my partner, who has supported me with great understanding and encouragement.
This present voluminous book came into being from my not quite unselfish wish to draw up
a compendium in a compressed form containing relevant data concerning track for the railway
engineer. Many ideas, as well as the basis of my comprehension of physical laws relevant for
track and track maintenance, were acquired from my dear friend Egon Schubert, who unfortunately died much too early, and Josef Theurer, for which I am indebted. My work as the head of
the research & development department of Plasser & Theurer has offered and still offers me the
opportunity to deal with research in the field of track behaviour and optimum track maintenance
methods. This knowledge and the rich experience gained on my job during the past eighteen
years have been worked into this book. The present compendium also contains many interesting
facts from relevant publications. I owe thanks and respect also to these numerous authors who
cannot be mentioned here.
This book has been translated with great precision by Ursula Stampfer. I am greatly indebted to
her for this exemplary work.
My colleague Norbert Jurasek has gone to great lengths to check the technical terms used and
the general correctness of the English version. I would like to thank him for his wholehearted
commitment and the many hours spent on this work. The ensuing high standard of the English
version could not have been reached without his assistance.
Compared to the 1st and 2nd German editions, the present English version contains several principal amendments and additions. They concern the basis of catenary and catenary construction,
as well as their maintenance, and furthermore, the most recent findings about the development
of head checks and the latest practical results of tests of the resistance of head-hardened rails
to wear have been included.
This English edition also contains the theory of dynamic track stabilising, additional findings on
the capacities of ballast cleaners and the connection between screening quality and degree of
recycling. Furthermore, additions have been made in the chapters interaction between wheel
and rail and economics.
I hope that this work will be a help and useful reference not only for the present generation of
railway engineers, but also for those in the future.
In this way I hope to have made a small contribution to a successful railway.
Bernhard Lichtberger
Overview
Overview
1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
33
42
46
47
60
71
72
96
97
97
99
99
100
105
105
106
107
107
113
113
113
114
119
119
120
123
128
131
145
147
147
148
150
151
153
166
166
Overview
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
167
168
168
172
176
184
188
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7.1
7.2
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
189
198
202
202
204
207
232
237
242
243
243
244
244
248
249
250
251
252
254
255
258
260
261
264
270
272
280
283
Overview
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
290
290
292
293
294
297
298
299
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
The tasks of switches, crossings and diamond crossings with slips ...
The main types of switches, crossings and diamond crossings
with slips ......................................................................................................
Designation of switches .............................................................................
Elements of switches ..................................................................................
The vibration-damped switch with divided long sleepers ......................
Geometric and structural characteristics of switches ............................
Schematic representation of switches .....................................................
Settlement behaviour of switches .............................................................
Maintenance of switches ...........................................................................
Overlaps of rails ..........................................................................................
13
13.1
13.2
309
312
312
312
315
315
330
331
333
339
342
342
343
351
355
356
356
360
361
363
363
365
366
376
377
379
379
379
381
Overview
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
387
387
390
390
392
395
396
397
398
398
398
399
400
400
401
401
402
402
405
406
413
414
501
520
556
568
574
576
577
585
587
588
589
594
594
595
Contents
Contents
1
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8
2.1.9
2.1.10
2.1.11
2.1.12
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.2.1
2.2.3
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.3.1
2.3.3.2
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.3.1
2.4.3.2
2.4.3.3
2.4.4
2.4.4.1
2.4.4.2
2.4.4.3
2.4.4.4
2.4.4.5
2.4.4.6
2.4.5
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.1.1
2.5.1.2
33
34
34
36
37
37
38
39
39
40
40
41
41
42
42
42
43
43
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
48
53
53
53
54
54
54
56
57
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59
59
59
60
61
62
66
9
Contents
2.5.1.3
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.6
2.7
2.7.1
2.7.2
2.7.3
2.7.3.1
2.7.4
2.7.5
2.7.6
2.7.7
2.7.7.1
2.7.7.2
2.7.8
2.7.9
2.7.10
2.7.11
2.7.12
2.7.13
2.7.14
2.8
2.9
2.10
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.8.1
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.11.1
3.11.1.1
10
67
70
70
70
71
72
74
74
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
82
83
84
84
85
89
94
95
96
97
97
99
99
100
100
100
104
104
105
105
106
106
106
106
107
107
111
113
113
113
113
113
Contents
3.11.1.2
3.11.1.3
3.12
3.12.1
3.12.2
3.12.2.1
3.12.2.2
3.12.3
3.12.4
3.12.5
3.12.5.1
3.12.5.2
3.12.6
3.12.7
3.13
3.13.1
3.13.2
3.13.2.1
3.13.2.2
3.13.2.3
3.14
3.15
3.15.1
3.15.2
3.15.3
3.16
3.16.1
3.16.2
3.16.2.1
3.16.3
3.17
3.17.1
3.17.2
3.17.3
3.18
3.18.1
3.18.2
3.18.3
3.18.4
3.18.5
3.18.6
3.18.6.1
3.18.6.2
3.18.7
3.18.8
3.18.9
3.18.9.1
3.18.9.1.1
3.18.9.1.2
114
114
114
114
115
115
115
115
115
116
116
117
117
118
119
119
119
119
119
119
119
120
120
122
123
123
123
124
125
125
128
128
129
131
131
131
134
136
137
137
137
137
137
137
137
138
139
140
140
11
Contents
3.18.9.1.3
3.18.9.1.4
3.18.9.1.5
3.18.9.1.6
3.18.9.2
3.18.10
3.18.11
3.18.12
3.19
3.19.1
3.19.2
3.19.2.1
3.19.2.2
3.19.2.3
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.1.1
4.1.1.2
4.1.1.3
4.1.1.4
4.2
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.2.1
4.3.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.1.1
4.6.1.2
4.6.1.2.1
4.6.1.2.2
4.6.2
4.6.2.1
4.6.3
4.6.3.1
4.6.3.1.1
4.6.3.1.2
4.6.3.1.2.1
4.6.3.1.2.2
4.6.3.1.3
4.6.3.1.3.1
4.6.3.1.3.2
4.6.3.1.4
4.6.3.1.5
12
140
141
141
141
142
142
142
144
145
145
145
145
145
145
147
147
147
147
147
147
147
148
148
148
148
150
150
151
153
153
153
154
154
154
156
156
156
156
156
156
156
158
158
158
158
158
160
Contents
4.6.3.2
4.6.3.3
4.6.3.4
4.6.3.5
4.6.4
4.6.4.1
4.6.4.2
4.6.4.3
4.7
4.8
162
162
163
163
163
163
164
165
166
166
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.3.1
5.3.3.2
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.1.1
5.5.1.2
5.5.1.2.1
5.5.1.2.2
5.5.1.2.3
5.5.1.2.4
5.5.1.2.5
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.3.1
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.5.5.1
5.5.5.2
5.5.5.3
5.5.5.4
5.5.5.5
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.6.3
167
168
168
170
170
170
171
171
171
172
172
172
172
175
176
177
177
177
177
177
177
177
178
178
178
178
179
180
180
182
183
183
183
184
184
185
185
13
Contents
5.6.4
5.6.5
5.6.6
5.7
5.7.1
5.7.2
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.2.1
6.1.2.1.1
6.1.2.2
6.1.2.3
6.1.3
6.1.3.1
6.1.3.2
6.1.3.3
6.1.3.4
6.1.3.5
6.1.3.6
6.1.3.7
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.5.1
6.1.5.1.1
6.1.5.1.2
6.1.5.1.3
6.1.5.1.4
6.1.5.1.5
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.1.1
6.2.1.2
6.2.1.3
6.2.1.4
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.5
6.5.1
14
186
186
187
188
188
188
189
189
190
190
191
191
192
192
192
193
194
194
194
194
195
195
196
197
197
197
198
198
198
198
198
198
199
200
201
202
202
202
202
202
202
202
204
204
204
Contents
6.5.2
6.5.2.1
6.5.2.2
6.5.2.3
6.5.2.4
6.6
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.1.1
7.1.1.2
7.1.2
7.2
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.5.1
7.3.5.1.1
7.3.5.1.1.1
7.3.5.1.1.2
7.3.5.1.1.3
7.3.5.1.1.4
7.3.5.1.1.5
7.3.5.1.2
7.3.5.1.3
7.3.5.1.4
7.3.5.1.5
7.3.5.1.5.1
7.3.5.1.6
7.3.6
7.3.6.1
7.3.6.4
7.3.6.5
7.3.6.6
7.3.6.7
7.3.6.8
8.1
8.1.1
7.3.6.2
7.3.6.3
204
206
206
206
206
207
209
209
209
209
209
210
210
210
211
211
212
212
216
216
217
217
218
218
218
221
223
224
224
226
226
226
228
228
229
229
229
229
230
230
15
Contents
8.1.1.1
8.1.1.2
8.1.1.3
8.1.1.4
8.1.1.5
8.1.1.6
8.1.1.7
8.1.1.8
8.1.1.9
8.1.1.10
8.1.1.11
8.1.2
8.1.2.1
8.1.2.2
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.3.1
8.2.3.2
8.2.3.3
8.2.3.4
8.2.4
8.2.4.1
8.2.4.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.7.1
8.7.2
8.7.2.1
8.7.2.2
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.11.1
8.11.2
8.11.3
8.11.4
8.11.5
8.11.6
8.11.7
8.11.8
8.12
8.12.1
8.12.2
16
232
233
233
233
234
234
234
234
235
235
236
236
237
237
237
237
237
238
238
238
241
241
242
242
242
242
243
243
244
244
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
251
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
252
253
253
Contents
8.12.3
8.13
8.13.1
8.13.2
8.13.3
8.14
8.14.1
8.14.2
8.14.2.1
8.14.3
8.14.3.1
8.14.3.2
8.14.3.3
8.14.3.4
8.14.3.5
8.15
8.15.1
8.15.2
253
254
254
254
254
255
255
255
255
256
256
257
257
257
258
258
258
259
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.4.1
9.2.4.1.1
9.2.4.1.2
9.2.4.1.3
9.2.4.1.4
9.2.4.1.5
9.2.4.1.6
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.1.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.4
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.4.1
9.5.4.2
9.5.4.3
260
261
261
261
261
262
262
262
263
263
263
263
264
264
264
264
266
267
269
270
270
272
273
273
274
274
274
275
277
17
Contents
9.5.4.4
9.5.4.5
9.5.4.6
9.5.4.7
9.6
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.2.4
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.7.4.1
9.7.5
9.8
9.9
9.9.1
9.10
9.10.1
9.10.2
9.10.3
9.10.4
9.11
9.12
9.12.1
9.12.1.1
9.12.1.2
9.12.2
9.12.3
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.15.1
9.15.2
9.15.2.1
9.15.2.2
9.15.2.3
9.15.2.4
9.15.2.5
9.15.2.6
9.15.2.7
9.15.2.8
10
10.1
9.7.2.1
9.7.2.2
9.7.2.3
18
277
279
280
280
280
283
283
284
284
284
285
285
285
286
287
288
290
290
292
292
292
292
292
293
293
294
294
294
295
296
296
297
298
299
299
301
302
304
306
306
306
307
307
308
Contents
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.2.1
10.1.2.2
10.1.2.3
10.1.3
10.1.3.1
10.1.3.2
10.1.3.3
10.1.3.4
10.1.3.5
10.1.3.6
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.5
10.6
10.6.1
10.6.1.1
10.6.1.2
10.6.1.3
10.6.1.4
10.6.1.5
10.6.2
10.6.2.1
10.6.2.2
10.6.2.3
10.6.2.4
10.6.2.5
10.6.3
10.6.3.1
10.6.3.2
10.6.4
10.6.4.1
10.6.4.2
10.6.4.3
10.6.5
10.6.5.1
10.6.6
10.6.6.1
10.6.6.2
10.7
10.8
309
309
309
310
310
310
310
310
311
311
311
311
312
312
312
313
313
315
315
316
316
317
318
318
318
320
321
321
322
322
323
323
323
324
325
325
326
326
327
327
329
329
329
330
331
11
11.1
11.1.1
Contents
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.1.4
11.1.5
11.1.6
11.1.7
11.1.8
11.1.9
11.2
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.2.1
11.2.2.2
11.3
11.4
11.4.1
11.5
11.5.1
11.5.1.1
11.5.2
11.5.2.1
11.5.2.2
11.5.2.3
11.5.3
11.5.3.1
11.6
11.6.1
11.6.2
11.6.3
11.7
11.7.1
11.7.2
11.8
11.9
11.9.1
11.9.2
11.9.3
11.9.4
11.10
11.10.1
11.10.2
11.11
333
333
334
335
335
335
335
336
339
340
340
340
341
342
342
342
343
344
344
346
346
346
347
349
350
351
351
352
353
355
356
356
356
356
357
360
360
360
360
361
361
361
12
12.1
12.2
The tasks of switches, crossings and diamond crossings with slips ... 363
The main types of switches, crossings and diamond crossings
with slips ...................................................................................................... 363
Single switches .............................................................................................. 363
12.2.1
20
Contents
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
12.3
12.4
12.4.1
12.4.1.1
12.4.1.1.1
12.4.1.1.2
12.4.1.2
12.4.1.3
12.4.2
12.4.3
12.4.4
12.4.5
12.4.5.1
12.4.5.1.1
12.4.5.2
12.4.5.3
12.4.5.4
12.4.5.5
12.4.5.6
12.4.6
12.4.7
12.4.8
12.4.9
12.4.10
12.4.11
12.4.12
12.5
12.6
12.6.1
12.6.1.1
12.6.1.2
12.6.1.3
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.9.1
12.9.2
12.10
364
364
365
365
365
366
366
366
366
367
367
368
368
369
369
370
370
371
371
371
372
372
373
373
373
373
374
374
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
374
374
376
377
377
377
378
378
379
379
379
379
379
381
385
387
387
387
21
Contents
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
390
390
392
395
396
397
14
14.1
14.2
14.2.1
14.2.2
14.3
14.4
14.4.1
14.5
14.5.1
14.6
14.7
14.8
15
15.1
15.2
15.2.1
15.2.2
15.2.3
15.3
15.4
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.5
15.6
15.6.1
15.6.1.1
15.6.1.1.1
15.6.1.1.2
15.6.1.1.2.1
15.6.1.1.3
15.6.1.1.4
15.6.1.1.5
15.6.1.1.6
15.6.1.1.6.1
15.6.1.1.6.2
15.6.1.1.6.3
15.6.1.1.6.4
15.6.1.1.6.5
15.6.1.1.6.6
22
398
398
398
398
398
399
400
400
400
400
401
401
402
402
403
404
405
405
406
406
412
413
414
414
415
415
415
416
419
420
420
421
421
422
422
422
424
425
Contents
15.6.1.1.7
15.6.1.1.8
15.6.1.2
15.6.1.3
15.6.2
15.6.2.1
15.6.2.2
15.6.2.3
15.6.2.3.1
15.6.2.3.2
15.6.2.3.3
15.6.2.3.4
15.6.2.3.5
15.6.2.3.6
15.6.2.3.6.1
15.6.2.3.7
15.6.2.3.8
15.6.2.3.9
15.6.2.4
15.6.2.5
15.6.2.5.1
15.6.2.5.1.1
15.6.2.5.1.2
15.6.2.5.1.3
15.6.2.6
15.6.2.7
15.6.2.8
15.6.2.9
15.6.2.9.1
15.6.2.9.1.1
15.6.2.9.1.2
15.6.2.9.1.3
15.6.2.9.1.4
15.6.2.9.1.5
15.6.2.10
15.6.2.10.1
15.6.2.10.1.1
15.6.2.10.1.2
15.6.2.10.2
15.6.2.10.3
15.6.2.10.4
15.6.2.10.5
15.6.2.10.6
15.6.2.10.7
15.6.2.10.8
15.6.2.10.8.1
427
428
429
429
430
431
431
431
433
435
435
435
436
436
436
438
439
440
441
441
442
442
442
444
444
446
447
448
448
449
449
449
449
449
450
450
451
451
452
454
454
455
458
458
460
461
23
Contents
15.6.2.10.8.2
15.6.2.10.8.3
15.6.2.10.8.4
15.6.2.10.8.5
15.6.2.10.9
15.6.2.10.9.1
15.6.2.10.9.2
461
462
463
465
471
471
475
476
477
477
479
482
482
483
483
485
485
486
487
488
488
488
488
490
491
492
492
496
496
498
498
500
501
501
501
501
501
501
501
501
502
502
503
504
505
505
506
Contents
15.7.2.1.1
15.7.2.1.2
15.7.2.1.3
15.7.2.1.4
15.7.2.2
15.7.2.2.1
15.7.2.3
15.7.2.3.1
15.7.2.4
15.7.2.5
15.7.2.6
15.7.2.6.1
15.7.2.6.2
15.8
15.8.1
15.8.2
15.8.2.1
15.8.2.1.1
15.8.2.2
15.8.2.3
15.8.2.4
15.8.2.5
15.8.2.6
15.8.2.7
15.8.2.8
15.8.2.9
15.8.2.10
15.8.2.11
15.8.2.12
15.8.2.13
15.8.2.13.1
15.8.2.13.2
15.8.2.13.2.1
15.8.2.13.2.2
15.8.2.13.2.3
15.8.2.13.2.4
15.8.2.13.3
15.8.2.13.4
15.8.2.14
15.8.2.14.1
15.8.2.14.2
15.8.3
15.8.3.1
15.8.3.2
15.8.3.3
15.8.4
506
507
509
509
509
509
512
514
515
515
516
516
517
520
520
521
523
523
525
525
528
531
532
532
534
534
536
537
538
539
539
540
542
542
542
543
544
544
545
545
545
546
546
546
546
547
25
Contents
15.8.4.1
15.8.5
15.8.5.1
15.8.6
15.8.6.1
15.8.6.1.1
15.8.6.1.2
15.8.7
15.9
15.9.1
15.9.1.1
15.9.1.2
15.9.2
15.9.2.1
15.9.2.2
15.9.2.3
15.9.2.4
15.9.2.5
15.9.2.6
15.9.3
15.9.3.1
15.9.3.1.1
15.9.3.1.2
15.9.3.1.2.1
15.9.3.1.2.2
15.9.3.2
15.9.3.3
15.10
15.10.1
15.10.2
15.10.2.1
15.10.2.2
15.10.3
15.11
15.11.1
15.11.2
15.11.3
15.11.4
15.11.5
15.12
15.13
15.13.1
15.13.1.1
15.13.1.2
15.13.1.3
15.13.1.4
15.13.2
15.13.2.1
26
547
548
548
549
552
552
552
554
556
556
556
556
559
560
560
562
564
564
566
566
567
567
567
567
567
567
567
568
568
570
572
572
572
574
574
574
575
575
576
576
577
577
578
579
580
580
581
582
Contents
15.13.2.2
15.13.3
16
16.1
16.1.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.4.1
16.4.2
16.4.3
16.4.4
16.4.4.1
16.4.4.2
16.4.4.3
16.4.4.4
16.4.4.5
16.5
16.6
16.7
585
585
587
588
589
589
590
590
591
591
591
592
592
594
594
594
595
27
1 General information
General information
This track manual is intended to make clear that the track consists not only of individual components
viewed separately, but the railway wheel-track system as a whole.
The track must:
guide vehicles without risk of derailment,
take up vertical and horizontal vehicle forces,
off-load these forces via the track grid and ballast bed into the subsoil,
ensure high passenger comfort and
high availability for train traffic
The railway wheel transmits vertical and horizontal forces onto the track. Furthermore, the long welded railway track is subject to the influence of longitudinal forces arising because of changes in temperature. The track is stressed by quasi-static (low-frequency) and dynamic force components of
higher frequency. Figure 1 schematically represents the Wheel-Track system.
vehicle body
z
czs
czs
kzs
kzs
secondary suspension
bogie
czp
czp
kzp
S
y
z
czo
kzo
czu
kzu
kzp primary
Y+DY
Q+DQ
suspension
wheelset
czo
kzo
permanent way
czu
kzu
substructure
ballast
subsoil
1 General information
The individual parts of this system are linked by components exerting elastic and damping effects.
The elastic and damping elements between vehicle body and bogie, as well as between bogie and
wheelset, are very well known and their behaviour can be very well expressed mathematically.
The track itself with its elasto-plastic properties cannot be expressed by an exact analysis because
of the inhomogeneous behaviour of the ballast bed, the protective layer of the formation and the subsoil. Empiric parameters and connections found out by experiments are used for this purpose.
The strength of these forces is a function of the axle load, of changes in wheel loads when driving
on curves or in case of unequal loading, of braking and starting, and the rolling of ovalized unbalanced wheels on a defective track.
The track grid has to distribute these forces in such a way, that the maximum admissible values for
ballast compression below the sleeper and the admissible compressive strain on the soil will not be
exceeded.
Figure 2 shows the increase of wheelset loads and speeds in the course of railway history. It is
remarkable how the wheelset loads for goods wagons have steadily risen to todays value of 22.5
tons in the future it will be 25 tons. The speed of passenger trains has also increased: 250 to 300
km/h on new tracks. Trains in general run at a higher speed nowadays, even on the rest of the railway network.
[t]
20
10
10
15
14
12
22,5
22
20
19
40
1850
60
70
80
90
1900
10
20
30
40
1950
60
70
80
90
320
280
250
= passenger trains
240
= goods trains
200
200
160
120
80
40
25
40
75
60
90
55
45
35
25
120
100
160
140
65
55
160
160
140
140
100
80
60 65
120
0
40
1850
60
70
80
90
1900
10
20
30
40
1950
60
70
80
90
2000
year
Figure 2: Chronological development of wheelset loads and train speeds, for passenger
and goods trains [1]
30
1 General information
The theoretical comments and practical experience stated in the following are intended to explain
how to fulfil these higher requirements which, undoubtedly, will rise even further in the future.
Permanent way for high-density lines, which, according to modern knowledge, requires only a little
maintenance, consists of the following elements:
heavy-profile rail UIC60,
hard-wearing rails in curves (head-hardened or high-alloy),
concrete sleepers of optimized quality for track and switches (soled sleepers, broad sleepers,
frame sleepers, ladder sleeper track, etc.),
torsion-resistant and elastic rail fastenings (optimization of elasticity and damping is necessary),
permanently stable ballast bed and
permanently stable, frost resistant track formation (by the insertion of protective layers and geotextiles).
31
The track grid is carried in the track bed on a floating support. This causes the track geometry to
deteriorate under the influence of dynamic forces, however, it has the advantage that this deterioration may be remedied at low cost by fully automated permanent-way machines.
6.1
The ballast thickness this is the distance between the lower surface of the sleeper and the subsoil
should be as large as possible ([189], [190]). The pressure distribution lines should intersect, otherwise the subsoil would be pressed up between the sleepers.
The required ballast bed thickness depends on:
the sleeper spacing,
the sleeper width, and
the angle of friction of the ballast.
The thickness of the ballast bed should be at least 30 cm for axle loads of 220 kN, a sleeper spacing of 60cm and a sleeper width of 28 cm. For high-speed lines a thickness of 40 cm is advisable.
It is important to provide 45 to 50 cm of ballast at the sleeper ends. This guarantees a significant
resistance to lateral displacement.
189
The ballast bed cross section should have the following target dimensions:
ballast width at the sleeper ends:
0.4 m at v ) 160 km/h,
0.5 m at v > 160 km/h, and
0.45 m for B75 sleepers (sleeper length: 2.8 m), and
ballasting up to the upper edge of the sleeper.
Inclination of the ballast shoulder:
1:1.5 designed,
1:1.25 implemented, and
a cross fall of the formation of 1:20
Minimum ballast bed thickness below the lower sleeper edge (measured below the low rail)
0.3 m for existing lines, and
0.35 m or 0.40 m, respectively, for new lines.
This means that the thickness of the ballast bed increases adequately below the superelevated rail,
furthermore, the formation has to be broadened correspondingly.
It is advisable to provide ballast of high compactness and tension. This can be reached by inserting
and compacting the ballast in layers. The best way to insert the ballast in layers is with the help of a
tamping machine, sleeper end consolidators and a dynamic track stabiliser.
6.1.2
Ballast materials
The raw material for permanent-way ballast has to meet the following requirements [191]:
resistance to weather influences (to be determined by the freeze-thaw test),
high toughness (determined in the rotary drum grinder),
high resistance to pressure (determined by pressure and impact tests),
no loam or earth content, and
the rocks should break into sharp-edged cubes.
The most suitable materials are hard ballast (basalt, diabase, granite) which meet the above requirements. Soft rocks (limestone, dolomite, sedimentary rocks) are usually less suitable.
6.1.2.1
Crushed ballast
190
undersize in mass %
70
68
65
60
50
40
35
30
25
30
20
10
3
0
16
22,5
range admissible
for the time being
31,5
40
50
63
80
size of mesh mm
Figure 97: Admissible range of grain size analysis for new ballast
6.1.2.1.1
Grain shapes
The ballast bed mainly consists of skeleton grain, and, depending on the service life and permanentway conditions, of distance and filler grain.
Grain size as well as grain shape changes, as material shells and is rubbed off under operational
loads. A new ballast bed consists almost entirely of skeleton grain. Larger particles come off under
load, until the contact surfaces are numerous enough to divert the required loads via the ballast. The
developing distance grain improves the resistance to shearing (a distance grain percentage of up to
15%, size 1530 mm, would be the optimum). The percentage of the distance grain, however,
increases in the course of time, and additionally finer material, the filler grain, develops, which begins
to enclose the skeleton grain. That is why the angle of internal friction of the material diminishes and
its resistance to shearing and bearing capacity is reduced. If the shearing strain becomes too high,
a soil fracture might occur.
6.1.2.2
Round ballast
Round ballast (gravel), partly crushed, is used in countries with poor rock deposits. It is not indented and therefore gives only low resistance to lateral displacement; furthermore, major grain
rearrangements often occur in this kind of ballast, therefore, settlement values are higher than in
tracks with crushed ballast. The resistance to shearing of round ballast approximately corresponds
to the value of contaminated standard ballast.
191
clean new
ballast
skeleton grain
distance grain
filler grain
fouled ballast
(fines)
Figure 98: Schematic representation of skeleton grain, distance grain and filler grain
6.1.2.3
Ballast in bags
Experiments, where fine gravel was filled into plastic bags (the so-called bag permanent-way) and
compressed, have shown that the settlement of these fillings (particularly of fine material of a size of
57 mm) was comparatively high [193]. Furthermore it is difficult to correct the track position. Therefore, further experiments were abandoned.
6.1.3
For economical reasons railways usually buy their ballast directly from quarries producing road ballast. Therefore, they usually acknowledge the existing experience and test methods and only slightly change the grain size of the ballast.
Major railways have their own test specifications and have the tests carried out by material testing
bodies.
6.1.3.1
This test serves to determine the breaking strength of natural stone. A specimen of about 10 kg in a
cylinder, together with several steel balls, is revolved 1000 times around its axis at a speed of 33 rpm
[194]. After the test the specimen is screened on a 1.6 mm screen. The Los-Angeles value is determined according to the following formula:
m
LA = 100
M
[%]