Palindromic polynomial From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A polynomial is palindromic, if the sequence of its coefficients are a palindrome.

Let

be a polynomial of degree n, then P is palindromic if ai = an i for i=0...n.

Similarly, P is called antipalindromic if ai = an i for i=0...n. Examples Some examples of palindromic polynomials are: (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1. Generally, the expansion of (x + 1)n is palindromic for all n (can see this from binomial expansion) It also follows that if P is of even degree (so has odd number of terms in the polynomial), then it can only be antipalindromic when the 'middle' term is 0, i.e. ai = ai, where n = 2i.

Palindromic and Reciprocal Polynomials 5. - Show that the product of a polynomial and its reciprocal polynomial is a palindromic polynomial. Hint Consider the zeros. Definition of reciprocal polynomial of f(x) for the book Introduction to the Theory of Error-Correcting Codes, by Vera Pless, 3rd edition Page 58 and 59. If f(x) is a polynomial of degree m, the reciprocal polynomial of f(x) is defined to be . If , its reciprocal polynomial equals ; that is, the coefficients are written in reverse order. Theorem: If is a root of is a root of g(x), reciprocal polynomial of f(x). Also f(x) is irreducible iff its reciprocal polynomial is irreducible, and f(x) is primitive iff its reciprocal polynomial is primitive. Proof: Suppose

f ( x) a n x n a n 1 x n 1 a1 x a 0
n n 1

is a polynomial. Its reciprocal polynomial is

g ( x) bn x bn 1 x

b1 x b0 .
bk a n k
2n k

From the definition, we have Then we have

for all , where

0 k n.

f ( x) g ( x) c k x k
j

ck

i j k

a b
i

k 0,1,2,,2n . f ( x) g ( x) is a Palindromic polynomial. So we need to show that c k c n k .

We want to show that We consider any

0 k n , then 2n k n . Then

ck

i j k

a b
i

a0 bk a1bk 1 ak b0 ank bn ank 1bn1 an bnk

a0 a n k a1 a n k 1 a k a n

c2 n k

i i j 2 nk

a b

a0 a n k a1 a n k 1 a k a n
Thus

ck cnk .

Products top 2x819 = 9x182 3x728 = 8x273 4x217 = 7x124 4x427 = 7x244 4x637 = 7x364 4x847 = 7x484 5x546 = 6x455 6x455 = 5x546 7x124 = 4x217 7x244 = 4x427 7x364 = 4x637 8x273 = 3x728 9x182 = 2x819 59x25 = 5x295 . . . . . . . . . . 2x7138 = 83x172 4x3149 = 94x134 . . . . . . . . . . . 2198x9 = 9891x2 3297x8 = 8792x3 4132x7 = 7231x4 4264x7 = 7462x4 4396x7 = 7693x4 5495x6 = 6594x5 6594x5 = 5495x6 7231x4 = 4132x7 7462x4 = 4264x7 7693x4 = 4396x7 8792x3 = 3297x8 9891x2 = 2198x9 .

1x6264 = 4x6x261 1x9168 = 8x6x191 2x3168 = 8x6x132 3x3464 = 4x6x433 4x7866 = 6x6x874 .. . . 144x441 = 252x252 156x651 = 273x372 168x862 = 294x492 276x672 = 384x483 .

3x21525 = 525x123 3x42525 = 525x243 3x63525 = 525x363 3x84525 = 525x483 8x22287 = 782x228 8x23575 = 575x328 8x46575 = 575x648 8x69575 = 575x968 1224x4221 = 2142x2412 1236x6321 = 2163x3612 1248x8421 = 2184x4812 1584x4851 = 2772x2772 1596x6951 = 2793x3972

49x2994 = 499x294 59x2995 = 599x295 97x6769 = 967x679 . . . . . 13344x44331 = 23352x25332 13356x65331 = 23373x37332 13368x86331 = 23394x49332 .... .

Pairs of Squares top 12 = 144 and 21 = 441 13 = 169 and 31 = 961 . . 102=10404 and 201=40401 103=10609 and 301=90601 112=12544 and 211=44521 113=12769 and 311=96721 1012=1024144 and 2101=4414201 1112=1236544 and 2111=4456321 1212=1468944 and 2121=4498641 2012=4048144 and 2102=4418404

The 1973 paper states that Harborth said that Trigg checked all integers less than 10,000 in 1967 and found that 249 seemed to never form a palindrome. 196 would be the first of those 249 numbers.

A number is called a palindrome when it is equal to the number you get when all its digits are reversed. For example, 2772 is a palindrome. We discovered a curious thing. We took the number 461, reversed the digits, giving the number 164, and calculated the sum of these two numbers:

461 164 + ------625 We repeated the process of reversing the digits and calculating the sum two more times: 625 526 + ------1151 1511 + ------2662 To our surprise, the result 2662 was a palindrome. We decided to see if this was a pure coincidence or not. So we took another 3-digit number, reversed it, which gave a larger number, and added the two. The result was not a palindrome. We repeated the process, which resulted in another 3-digit number which was still not a palindrome. We had to repeat the process twice more to finally arrive at a 4-digit number which was a palindrome.

So how and where did the idea of Palindromes come from? Well we know a great deal more about word palindromes. The word itself is from the Greek palindromus , which means to run back again.

NUMBER THEORY TRIVIA: AMICABLE NUMBERS by: Titu Andreescu Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy Once upon a time there was a sultan who considered himself a great problem solver. The guards told him that one of his prisoners was a mathematician. The very next day he visited the captive and offered him the following challenge: "Either you remain in prison for the rest of your life or you give me a problem to solve and I will let you go free until I find the answer, but as soon as I discover the solution, off comes your head." The clever captive did not hesitate in accepting the deal. He gave the sultan the following problem: "The sum of all the natural divisors of 220, except for the number itself, equals 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110 = 284 and the sum of all the natural divisors of 284, except for the number itself is equal to 1 + 2 + 4 +71 + 142 = 220. Find another pair of such numbers." The numbers 220 and 284 are called amicable. In general, we say that two positive integers are amicable or friendly if each of them is equal to the sum of all the natural proper divisors of the other, including 1. The prisoner of this story went free and eventually died of old age because the sultan was never able to solve the problem given to him. The numbers 220 and 284 form the first pair of amicable numbers. This pair was originally found by Pythagoras. In antiquity, the amicable numbers were thought by mystics to possess magical powers. Astrologers used these numbers for preparing talismans and horoscopes. They believed that amicable numbers had the power to create special ties between individuals. Eventually the mystical notoriety of amicable numbers caused them to be studied more carefully by number theorists. The amicable pair (17,296 ; 18,416) is often attributed to Fermat but was actually discovered by the Arab al-Banna in the late thirteenth or fourteenth century. The pair consisting of 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 was found by Descartes. A remarkable number of pairs of amicable numbers, 59 in all, were found by Euler, among them the pair (6,232 ; 6,368) and the pair (10,744; 10,856). Long after Euler, a sixteen year old Italian youth found a smaller, overlooked pair of amicable numbers, 1184 and 1210. E. Escott wrote a long paper dedicated to the amicable numbers, offering an inventory of 390 amicable pairs.

P. Poulet brought out another 43 amicable pairs, among them the pairs (122,368; 135,536) and (32,685,250; 34,538,270). Numerous other mathematicians devoted a considerable part of their time seeking for new pairs of amicable numbers. There are various methods for discovering pairs of amicable numbers. For example, if n is a positive integer such that 3 2n - 1, 3 2n+1 - 1, and 32 22n+1 - 1 are all prime, then 2n+1(3 2n - 1)(3 2n+1 - 1) and 2n+1(32 22n+1 - 1) form an amicable pair. Show this and verify that for n = 1 you get Pythagoras' pair and for n = 3 you obtain Fermat's pair. AS YET UNANSWERED QUESTIONS

It is not known whether there exist infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers. There exist pairs of odd amicable numbers, like (12,285; 14,595) or (67,095; 71,145), but it is not known whether there exists any pair with one of the numbers odd and one even. It is not known whether there are pairs of relatively prime amicable numbers. However, H. J. Kanold proved that if there existed a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers, then each of the numbers had to be greater than 10 23 and they would have together more than 20 prime factors.

The concept of a pair of amicable numbers has been extended to the notion of a k-tuplet of amicable numbers by L. E. Dickson and Th. E. Mason: the positive integers n1, n2, ...,nk form a k-tuplet of amicable numbers if the sum of all the natural proper divisors, including 1, of any one of them is equal to the sum of the other k-1 numbers. The numbers 1,980, 2,016 and 2,556 constitute a triplet of amicable numbers. Another such triplet is formed by the numbers 103,340,640, 123,228,768 and 124,015,008.

It is also unknown whether there exist infinitely many k-tuplets of amicable numbers for some positive integer k greater than 2.

Friendly Numbers A friend is another self, like 220 and 284. Attributed to Pythagoras (c575 - c495 BC). Mathematicians aren't renowned for being the most gregarious of people. To get to grips mentally with all that precise logic they often require to be left well alone. Andrew Wiles became a virtual recluse for seven years as he plotted his successful final onslaught on Fermat's Last Theorem, only emerging from his attic occasionally for air and to give the odd lecture. In 1940, the similarly-named French mathematician Andr Weil developed his most important contributions to algebraic geometry while in prison in Rouen for avoiding enlistment into the army. Another French mathematician, Andr Bloch, did all his best work during his 31 years as an inmate at a mental institution 1. They may not have much in the way of social lives, but, to compensate, mathematicians have created a whole world of imaginary friends in the numbers they study. We'll describe these, but first, we have to do a little maths... The Joy of Division Mathematicians study the theory of numbers within a branch of the subject known, not surprisingly, as number theory. One interesting property of integers (whole numbers) is whether they can be divided exactly. As you probably learned at school, some numbers divide into lots of different factors, whereas those we know as prime numbers can be divided only by themselves or 1. Now, each integer has a unique set of numbers into which it divides, and mathematicians have for a long time been interested in these. If we take, say, the number 42, its divisors are 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 and 42. Those of the number 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6

and 12. So, what can we do with these divisors? Well, we can count them, of course, but we find some of the most interesting mathematical results if we add them up. This sum of divisors is commonly known as the divisor function, and we give it the Greek letter sigma (), so: (42) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 14 + 21 + 42 = 96, and (12) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 12 = 28 The last number in this divisor list is the number itself, but sometimes we don't count this. If not, then we call these proper divisors and when we add them up, we call this the restricted divisor function some call it thealiquot sum2 and we give it the letter s. So: s(42) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 14 + 21 = 54, and s(12) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16 So, what can we do with these new numbers we have found? Making Friends Some integers are related to their divisor sum in similar ways. Those which share a common ratio between the number and divisor function are known as friendly numbers. The lowest number to have a friend is 6, who is a friend of 28. 6 has the divisors 1, 2, 3 and 6, which add up to 12. So its divisor sum is exactly twice as large as the number itself. 28 has the factors 1, 2, 4, 7, 14 and 28, which add up to 56, which again is twice 28. 6 and 28 are known as a friendly pair. You can look for more friends of 6 and 28, but you won't find another until you get to 496, and in fact there's a fourth at 8,128. These particular friends are in fact a special set of numbers known as perfect numbers. Another well-known friendly pair is 30 and 140 (which have three further friends in 2,480, 6,200 and 40,640). 80 and 200 are also the best of mates. Sometimes, as with Stan Laurel, a number can have a much larger friend. 24's closest pal is 91,963,648. Both numbers have a divisor sum which is 2 times their value. But alas, there are many which remain friendless. Of the numbers from 1 to 9, only the number 6 has any friends. The others are known as solitary numbers. Mathematicians have managed to prove that these numbers have no friends, but they can't yet prove this for all the currently friendless numbers. 10 is the lowest number for which they're not sure. They think it's solitary, but if you can prove it, you will achieve fame and fortune (well, just fame, actually and only in mathematical circles). You will equally earn respect if you disprove the mathematicians: just do a bit of matchmaking and find 10 a friend. Amicable Numbers Numbers don't need to be fully-fledged friends, they can also get on with each other amicably. Each of anamicable pair of numbers has a reduced divisor sum which is equal to the other number in the pair. The smallest amicable pair is 220 and 284. It works as follows: s(220) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110 = 284; s(284) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 71 + 142 = 220. Other amicable pairs include 1,184 & 1,210, and 2,620 & 2,924. Amicable numbers have been known about since ancient times. Greek lovers would present each other with talismans engraved with each of an amicable pair of numbers, representing the bond between them. They would often try to derive these numbers from their own personal statistics: their birth dates, horoscopes, or even their height. Since then, some of the most famous mathematicians, including Fermat, Descartes and Euler, have spent time finding new amicable pairs. It's still going on, too; in 2005, Paul Jobling discovered an amicable pair of numbers each of which was 24,073 digits long, while he was being held in a queue to speak to a call-centre3.

Sociable Numbers Amicable numbers only occur in pairs, but it's possible to have a larger group of numbers where the restricted divisor sum of the first leads to the next, and so on, before it returns to the first in the list. Groups like this are known as sociable numbers, but they're all quite large. One sociable group of four is {1,264,460, 1,547,860, 1,727,636 and 1,305,184}. There are smaller numbers in this group of five: {12,496, 14,288, 15,472, 14,536 and 14,264}. Mathematicians haven't yet found a social threesome. Practical Applications Mathematics is one of the most fundamental of disciplines. If we ever leave this planet and colonise new worlds, maybe in distant galaxies, we may find that all our scientific knowledge our chemistry, biology and physics operates in a completely different way in another part of the universe. Mathematics, on the other hand, is universal. We can be sure that our arithmetic, geometry and even our number theory will still be relevant wherever it is used. One thing we might well hope for in another world, though, is a practical application for friendly numbers, because we sure as hell can't find one in ours. Now, here is your puzzle. Find 3 numbers less than 100 that require at least 4 additions to obtain palindromes Can you find the smallest palindromic integer whose cube root is not a palindromic integer. For example, 1331 does not work because its cube root is 11, a palindrome. Palindrome Days #91 1. Which will be the last date in this century such that date in DDMMYYYY format will be a palindrome number ? (i.e. date like a 11 February 2011 = 11022011 ) 2. How many such days are possible in this century (from 1-1-2000 to 31-12-2099)? 3. Now, Which will be the last date in this century such that date in MMDDYYYY format will be a palindrome number ? 4. How many such days are possible in this century ( MMDDYYYY format) ? Answers: 1) 29-02-2092 2) 29 3) 12-02-2012 4) 12 A car's odometer shows 72927 miles, a palindromic number. What are the minimum miles you would need to travel to form another? The next one would be 73037, I would think. So, 110 miles.

Amicable Pair

An amicable pair

consists of two integers

for which the sum of proper divisors (the divisorsexcluding the number itself) of one number

equals the other. Amicable pairs are occasionally called friendly pairs (Hoffman 1998, p. 45), although this nomenclature is to be discouraged since the numbers more commonly known as friendly pairs are defined by a different, albeit related, criterion. Symbolically, amicable pairs satisfy

(1)

(2)

where

(3)

is the restricted divisor function. Equivalently, an amicable pair

satisfies

(4)

where

is the divisor function. The smallest amicable pair is (220, 284) which has factorizations

(5) (6)

giving restricted divisor functions

(7) (8) (9) (10)

The quantity

(11)

in this case,

, is called the pair sum. The first few amicable pairs are (220, 284), (1184, 1210), (2620, 2924) (5020, 5564), (6232,

6368), (10744, 10856), (12285, 14595), (17296, 18416), (63020, 76084), ... (Sloane's A002025 and A002046). An exhaustive tabulation is maintained by D. Moews.

In 1636, Fermat found the pair (17296, 18416) and in 1638, Descartes found (9363584, 9437056), although these results were actually rediscoveries of numbers known to Arab mathematicians. By 1747, Euler had found 30 pairs, a number which he later extended to 60. In 1866, 16-year old B. Nicol I. Paganini found the small amicable pair (1184, 1210) which had eluded his more illustrious predecessors (Paganini 1866-1867; Dickson 2005, p. 47). There were 390 known amicable pairs as of 1946 (Escott 1946). There are a total of 236 amicable pairs below below less than (te Riele 1986), 3340 less than (Moews and Moews 1993ab), 4316 less than (Cohen 1970), 1427

(Moews and Moews 1996), and 5001

(Moews and Moews 1996).

Rules for producing amicable pairs include the Thbit ibn Kurrah rule rediscovered by Fermat and Descartes and extended by Euler to Euler's rule. A further extension not previously noticed was discovered by Borho (1972).

Pomerance (1981) has proved that

(12)

for large enough

(Guy 1994). No nonfinite lower bound has been proven.

Let an amicable pair be denoted

, and take

is called a regular amicable pair of type

if

(13)

where

is the greatest common divisor,

(14)

and

are squarefree, then the number of prime factors of for

and . If

are and . Pairs which are not regular are called irregular or exotic (te and

Riele 1986). There are no regular pairs of type

(15)

is even, then

cannot be an amicable pair (Lee 1969). The minimal and maximal values of

found by te Riele (1986) were

(16)

and

(17)

te Riele (1986) also found 37 pairs of amicable pairs having the same pair sum. The first such pair is (609928, 686072) and (643336, 652664), which has the pair sum

(18)

te Riele (1986) found no amicable

-tuples having the same pair sum for

. However, Moews and Moews found a triple in 1993, and te Riele

found a quadruple in 1995. In November 1997, a quintuple and sextuple were discovered. The sextuple is (1953433861918, 2216492794082), (1968039941816, 2201886714184), (1981957651366, 2187969004634), (1993501042130, 2176425613870), (2046897812505, 2123028843495), (2068113162038, 2101813493962), all having pair sum 4169926656000. Amazingly, the sextuple is smaller than any known quadruple or quintuple, and is likely smaller than any quintuple.

The earliest known odd amicable numbers all were divisible by 3. This led Bratley and McKay (1968) to conjecture that there are no amicable pairs coprime to 6 (Guy 1994, p. 56). However, Battiato and Borho (1988) found a counterexample, and now many amicable pairs are known which are not divisible by 6 (Pedersen). The smallest known example of this kind is the amicable pair (42262694537514864075544955198125, 42405817271188606697466971841875), each number of which has 32 digits.

A search was then begun for amicable pairs coprime to 30. The first example was found by Y. Kohmoto in 1997, consisting of a pair of numbers each having 193 digits (Pedersen). Kohmoto subsequently found two other examples, and te Riele and Pedersen used two of Kohmoto's examples to calculated 243 typepairs coprime to 30 by means of a method which generates typepairs from a typepairs.

No amicable pairs which are coprime to

are currently known.

The following table summarizes the largest known amicable pairs discovered in recent years. The largest of these is obtained by defining

(19)

(20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

then

and

are all primes, and the numbers

(25) (26)

are an amicable pair, with each member having

decimal digits (Jobling 2005).

a) What is the only palindromic year this century?

Amicable Numbers 220, 284 220 + 284 = 504 = 2^3 * 3^2 * 7 1184, 1210 (discovered by a 16-year-old Italian named Nicolo Paganini) 1184 + 1210 = 2394 = 2 * 3^2 * 7 * 19 17296, 18416 17296 + 18416 = 35712 = 2^7 * 3^2 * 31 9363584, 9437056 9363584 + 9437056 = 18800640 = 2^13 * 3^3 * 5 * 17 666030256, 696630544 whose sum is not divisible by 9 is Poulet's pair 666030256 + 696630544 = 1362660800 = 2^16 * 5^2 * 31 * 83 * 331