FERROUS ALLOYS

The FERROUS group of alloys embraces a large number of materials offering quite diverse characteristics ranging from the brittle GREY CAST IRONS through to highly MALLEABLE MILD STEELS. An alloying element of central importance to ferrous metals is CARBON, be it in quantity, form or distribution within the alloy. Carbon has a significant influence on both the strength and quality of cast irons, it also affects the mechanical properties of wrought iron as well as both carbon and STAINLESS steels. In these last three materials, a lower carbon content improves their working characteristic (DUCTILITY and MALLEABILTIY), allowing a straightforward HOT WORKING of the alloy (by FORGING for instance). Whilst the ferrous group of alloys are most often today associated with fabricated metalworks; carbon steels, stainless steels and irons are all castable materials which can be poured into either sand or investment refractory moulds. All these alloys are melted in the furnace at appreciably higher temperatures than copper alloys (the melting point of pure iron is 1536C, copper 1085C). This feature can make use of ferrous materials somewhat problematic in the art foundry environment as the common gas fired furnace is less well suited for use at such elevated temperatures. Despite the drawbacks, iron is one of the most requested materials for casting artworks after copper and aluminium alloys, as such a minority of art founders will offer iron casting as a facility to their clients. One point of particular note, is that workshops that cast or fabricate both ferrous and nonferrous metals can be prone to problems arising from CROSS CONTAMINATION. Cross contamination occurs when ferrous dusts settle on non-ferrous metal works (and to some extent vice-versa). Contamination can also occur through a common use of machine tools and other equipment (including crucibles, twist drills, bending rolls, abrasive discs, shot blasters etc). The end result of cross contamination by ferrous grinding dusts is the development of an unsightly red oxide bloom on copper alloys and a transferred surface rusting of stainless steels. Ideally, ferrous and non-ferrous (including stainless steel), workings should be carried out in separate workshops using dedicated machinery. In practice, religiously dividing work spaces and tooling is very expensive and therefore not always realistic. At the very least great care should be taken when working ferrous metals in proximity to copper and other non-ferrous metals, to control the direction and settling of grinding exhaust. IRON Cast iron is free flowing when molten, and very strong, if somewhat brittle, when solidified. The various grades of common cast iron are nominally identified by the colour of an exposed TEST FRACTURE (GREY, BLACKHEART, WHITEHEART are examples). Alloying elements such as CARBON, SILICON and PHOSPHORUS impart additional strength to the iron, allowing for its traditional use as a structural/decorative material.

The use of cast iron in structurally oriented decoration was pronounced at the height of the industrial revolution during the mid to latter part of the nineteenth century. Some of the great masterpieces of engineering design were constructed at this time, including Sir Joseph Paxtons (1801-1865) Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition of 1851. A much earlier example of decorative ironwork was the railing erected around St. Pauls Cathedral, London, this was installed between 1710 and 1714. As a rule though, use of cast iron in creating fine sculptural work was, and still is, less than common. A cast iron head originating from the Ming dynastic period (China 1368-1644), is in the Fitzwilliam Museum, this item is believed to be one of the oldest examples of a cast iron artwork to be held in a British collection [ref]. Whilst the relatively high carbon content in grey cast irons improves the metals outright STRENGTH, carbon also reduces the ability of iron to resist impact, shock and other stresses. The application of a shock force can potentially lead to the fracturing of a cast iron design. Damage can arise from mechanical or heat sources (hammering or welding for instance), or in service (usually due to vandalism or mishandling). For this reason the MALLEABLE and DUCTILE versions of cast iron are generally preferred for producing artworks today. Ductile or SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE (SG) iron so called because the carbon content of the metal chills into graphite nodules is an important grade. Whereas most carbon in cast iron forms as flake like structures, the addition of magnesium to the SG iron charge, combined with a low sulphur content, encourages carbon to chill in a spherical form thus imbuing this material with its ductile characteristics. The ability to manipulate a cast to some extent without undue risk of fracturing is an especially useful quality in art founding, where cast sculptures are usually extensively worked during the chasing/finishing stages. Standard rutile type carbon steel MMA welding ELECTRODES can be used for joining ductile SG iron sections, these welding electrodes being far more economic than the more usual nickel bearing electrodes which are used for welding traditional cast iron grades (see below). In the US ductile cast irons are described and designated under ASTM A536-84:1984, in Britain and Europe either BS 2789:1985 or ISO 1083:1976. The joining of cast iron sections is traditionally done with fastenings in the form of rivets or bolts, either of these methods minimise the likelihood of the cast fracturing always a potential danger with the localised heat concentrations required for fusion welding processes. Many artists and designers working with grey cast irons use this to their advantage, and employ fastenings as an integral visual feature in the artwork itself. Welding of grey and other traditional irons can be done by MMA (STICK) welding, using a flux covered electrode containing a nickel bearing alloy (this type of electrode can be very expensive). The LOW HYDROGEN type welding electrodes and filler wires used for joining low carbon steel alloys are an alternative option, though the cast must be pre-heated before welding commences to minimise the possibility of cracking in the joint zone (SG iron excepted). Cast iron can also be joined by oxy-gas, in particular flux assisted BRONZE WELDING, which is a essentially a nonfusion brazing technique.

Metals and Alloys If there is a typical engineering material that is associated in the public's mind with modern engineering practice, it is structural steel. This versatile construction material has several characteristics, or properties, that we consider metallic: (1) It is strong and can be readily formed into practical shapes. (2) Its extensive, permanent derformability, or ductility, is an important asset in permitting small amounts of yielding to sudden and severe loads. Many Californians have been able to observe moderate earthquake activity that leaves windows (of relatively brittle glass) cracked while steel support framing still functions normally. (3) A freshly cut steel surface has a characteristic metallic luster, and (4) a steel bar shares a fundamental characteristic with other metals: it is a good conductor of electrical current. Although structural steel is an especially common example of metals for engineering, a little thought produces numerous others [such as gold, platinum, lead and tin].

Taken from Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers, James F. Shackelford, Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
For more information on ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys, try this terrific MatSci and Engineering multi-media source. Rarely do we find metallic elements in the `free' state. For example, consider native silver. Silver has been mined for eons and has always been popular in jewelry and for coinage. Only in the past hundred years however, has the demand for silver been so great. The reason for this demand is the use of silver in the photography industry, which takes advantage of silver's reactivity to light. Native Silver is rare and much silver is produced from silver-bearing minerals such as prousite, pyrargyrite, galena, etc. Specimens of Native Silver usually consist of wires that are curved and intertwined together, making an inspiring mineralogical curiosity. The reference source URL is a commercial supplier of mineral specimens. The image has Copyright 1995,1996 by Amethyst Galleries, Inc..

Society gets its metals from an ore, not from the natural element found in nature. Ores are often a combination of the metallic element and a non-metallic element. Consider, for example, Galena. Galena, PbS, is a common and popular mineral for rock hounds. Its characteristic cubes, distinctive cleavage and high density make it easy to identify and a favorite in high school geology labs. The structure of Galena is identical to that of halite, NaCl. The two minerals have the same crystal shapes, symmetry and cleavage. Some Galena may contain up to 1% silver in place of lead. The large volume of Galena that is processed for lead produces enough Silver as a by product in the production of Galena, the leading ore of Silver. The reference source URL is a commercial supplier of mineral specimens. Shown on the left is the basic oxygen furnace used in the production of steel. Other steel production images are also available at this URL from Corus Education. Corus is a company that manufactures, processes and distributes steel products and services to customers worldwide. For additional information on the making of steel, visit either of the following web pages: The Steel Society; or 'What's a Matter-U".

The complexity of the design and selection of metals and alloys used in a high-temperature, aggressive environment is illustrated in this image (left). I believe this is a heat exchanger, perhaps in a petro-chemical plant. I found this image while doing a search for NDI (NonDestructive Inspection) information, so the source is not directly relevant to the metals and alloys web pages. Nevertheless, I could not resist including it! The reference URL is Q.A.T.E., a Australasian quality assurance and testing engineering firm which manufacturers and resales NDI products. There is a class of alloys called shape memory alloys. These alloys provide the engineer a means of restoring a bent metal wire to some trainedalternate shape. These SMA's have applications ranging from frames for optical glasses to repair parts for the human body. For example, fine NiTi (containing approximate equal parts of nickel and titanium) shape memory or superelastic wires can be woven into cylindrical shapes for various applications. One such application is vascular stents to reinforce blood vessels in the human body. The stent is crushed and inserted through a cannula into the proper location in the blood vessel. Upon warming above its transformation temperature, the stent returns to its trained cylindrical shape and provides reinforcement to the walls of the blood vessel. If you would like to see a stent inservice in a blood vessel, go to the Biomaterials link on these pages. If you would like to know more about shape memory alloys, go to the web pages of Johnson-Mathis, the source of the image. GENERAL INFORMATION: FERROUS METALS Material selection for a mechanical or structural application requires some important considerations, including how easily the material can be shaped into a finished part and how its properties can be either intentionally or inadvertently altered in the process. Depending on the end of use, metals can be simply cast into the finished part or cast into an intermediate form, such as an ingot, then worked, wrought by rolling, or processed by forging, extruding or another deformation process. Although the same operations are used with ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals and alloys, the reaction of nonferrous metals to these forming processes is often more severe. Consequently, properties may differ considerably between the cast and wrought forms of the same metal or alloy. To shape both non-ferrous and ferrous metals, designers use processes that range from casting and sintered powder metallurgy (P/M) to hot and cold working. Each forming method imparts unique physical and mechanical characteristics to the final component. As the more abundant of all commercial metals, alloys of iron and steel continue to cover a broad range of structural applications. Iron ore is readily available, constituting about 5% of the earth's crust and is easy to convert to a useful form. Iron s obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen, sulfur and other impurities. The ore is melted in a furnace in direct contact with the fuel using limestone as a flux. The limestone combines with impurities and forms a slag, which is easily removed. Adding carbon in small amounts reduces the melting point of iron. All commersial forms of iron and steel contain carbon, which is an integral part of the metallurgy of iron and steel. Manipulation of atom-to-atom relationships between iron, carbon and various alloying elements establishes the specific properties of ferrous metals. As atoms transform from one specific arrangement, or crystallic lattice, to another, strength, toughness, impact resistance, hardness, ductility and other properties are altered. Ferrous metals include: cast iron and steel

- special steels Char

stainless

steels

Heat Treatment of Steels

1.5 Hardenability

To achieve a full conversion of austenite into hard martensite, cooling needs to be fast enough to avoid partial conversion into perlite or bainite. If the piece is thick, the interior may cool too slowly so that full martensitic conversion is not achieved. Thus, the martensitic content, and the hardness, will drop from a high value at the surface to a lower value in the interior of the piece. Hardenability is the ability of the material to be hardened by forming martensite. Hardenability is measured by the Jominy end-quench test (Fig. 11.2). Hardenability is then given as the dependence of hardness on distance from the quenched end. High hardenability means that the hardness curve is relatively flat.
11.6 Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry

The cooling rate depends on the cooling medium. Cooling is fastest using water, then oil, and then air. Fast cooling brings the danger of warping and formation of cracks, since it is usually accompanied by large thermal gradients. The shape and size of the piece, together with the heat capacity and heat conductivity are important in determining the cooling rate for different parts of the metal piece. Heat capacity is the energy content of a heated mass, which needs to be removed for cooling. Heat conductivity measures how fast this energy is transported to the colder regions of the piece.

Precipitation Hardening
Hardening can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation motion. The precipitates form when the solubility limit is exceeded. Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening because it involves the hardening of the material over a prolonged time.
11.7 Heat Treatments

Precipitation

hardening

is

achieved

by:

a) solution heat treatment where all the solute atoms are dissolved to form a single-phase solution.

b) rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the solubility limit. This leads to a supersaturated solid solution that remains stable (metastable) due to the low temperatures, which prevent diffusion. c) precipitation heat treatment where the supersaturated solution is heated to an intermediate temperature to induce precipitation and kept there for some time (aging).

If the process is continued for a very long time, eventually the hardness decreases. This is called overaging. The requirements for precipitation hardening are:

appreciable maximum solubility solubility curve that falls fast with temperature composition of the alloy that is less than the maximum solubility

11.8 Mechanism of Hardening

Strengthening involves the formation of a large number of microscopic nuclei, called zones. It is accelerated at high temperatures. Hardening occurs because the deformation of the lattice around the precipitates hinder slip. Aging that occurs at room temperature is called natural aging, to distinguish from the artificial aging caused by premeditated heating.
11.9 Miscellaneous Considerations

Since forming, machining, etc. uses more energy when the material is hard, the steps in the processing of alloys are usually:

solution heat treat and quench do needed cold working before hardening do precipitation hardening

Exposure of precipitation-hardened alloys to high temperatures may lead to loss of strength by overaging.

Applications
Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded.

The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks. The two most commonly used structural metals, iron and aluminium, are also the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust.
[6]

Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metal is also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating. The high reflectivity of some metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. This last property can also make metallic jewelry aesthetically appealing. Some metals have specialized uses; radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts. Shape memory alloy is used for applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents.

Alloy Steel
Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying elements -- other than carbon and the commonly accepted amounts of manganese, copper, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus -- are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to change mechanical or physical properties. A steel is considered to be an alloy when the maximum of the range given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of these limits: 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, or 0.60% Cu; or when a definite range or minimum amount of any of the following elements is specified or required within the limits recognized for constructional alloy steels: aluminum, chromium (to 3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other element added to obtain an alloying effect. Technically, then, tool and stainless steels are alloy steels. In this chapter, however, the term alloy steel is reserved for those steels that contain a modest amount of alloying elements and that usually depend on thermal treatment to develop specific properties. With proper heat treatment, for example, tensile strength of certain alloy steels can be raised from about 55,000 psi to nearly 300,000 psi. Subdivisions for most steels in this family include "through-hardenable" and "carburizing" grades (plus several specialty grades such as nitriding steels). Through-hardening grades -- which are heat treated by quenching and tempering -- are used when maximum hardness and strength must extend deep within a part. Carburizing grades are used where a tough core and relatively shallow, hard surface are needed. After a surface-hardening treatment such as carburizing (or nitriding for nitriding alloys), these steels are suitable for parts that must withstand wear as well as high stresses. Cast steels are generally through hardened, not surface treated. Carbon content and alloying elements influence the overall characteristics of both types of alloy steels. Maximum attainable surface hardness depends primarily on carbon content. Maximum hardness and strength in small sections increase as carbon content increases, up to about 0.7%. However, carbon

contents greater than 0.3% can increase the possibility of cracking during quenching or welding. Alloying elements primarily influence hardenability. They also influence other mechanical and fabrication properties including toughness and machinability. Lead additions (0.15 to 0.35%) substantially improve machinability of alloy steels by high-speed tool steels. For machining with carbide tools, calcium-treated steels are reported to double or triple tool life in addition to improving surface finish. Few exact rules exist for selecting through-hardening or surface-hardening grades of alloy steels. In most cases, critical parts are field tested to evaluate their performance. Parts with large sections -heavy forgings, for example -- are often made from alloy steels that have been vacuum degassed. While in a molten state, these steels are exposed to a vacuum which removes hydrogen and, to a lesser degree, oxygen and nitrogen. Alloy steels are often specified when high strength is needed in moderate-to-large sections. Whether tensile or yield strength is the basis of design, thermally treated alloy steels generally offer high strength-to-weight ratios. For applications requiring maximum ductility, alloys with low sulfur levels (<0.01%) can be supplied by producers using ladle-refining techniques. In general, wear resistance can be improved by increasing the hardness of an alloy, by specifying an alloy with greater carbon content (without increasing hardness), or by both. The surface of a flamehardened, medium-carbon steel, for example, is likely to have poorer wear resistance than the carbon-rich case of a carburized steel of equal hardness. Exceptions are nitrided parts, which have better wear resistance than would be expected from the carbon content alone. For any combination of alloy steel and heat treatment, three factors tend to decrease toughness: low service temperature, high loading rates, and stress concentrations or residual stress. The general effects of these three conditions are qualitatively similar, so low-temperature impact tests (to -50F) are useful for many applications as toughness indicators under various service conditions and temperatures. Fully hardened-and-tempered, low-carbon (0.10 to 0.30% C) alloy steels have a good combination of strength and toughness, both at room and low temperature. Care must be taken in heat treatment of certain alloy-steel grades, however, because toughness may be decreased substantially by temper brittleness -- a form of embrittlement developed by slow cooling through the range of 900 to 600F, or by holding or tempering in this range. When liquid quenching is impractical (because of the danger of cracking or distortion, or because of cost), various low-carbon nickel or nickel-molybdenum steels in the normalized-and-tempered condition can be used for low-temperature service. Wrought alloy steels (and carbon steels) are classified by a series of AISI and SAE numbers that designate composition and alloy type. Letters, which are used in addition to the four-digit designations, include the suffix "H," used for steel produced to specific hardenability limits (which allows wider composition ranges for certain alloying elements), and the prefix "E," which indicates a steel made by the basic electric-furnace method. Other specifications, such as those issued by ASTM, specify minimum properties for critical structural, pressure-vessel, and nuclear applications. ASTM specifications classify cast alloy steels by relating the steel to the mechanical properties and intended service condition. Chemical analysis is secondary. There are ASTM specifications for general use such as A27 or A148 when mechanical properties are critical. For low-temperature service, A352 or A757 is recommended when toughness is important. For weldability, A216 is specified when fabrication is critical, and for pressure service, A217 or A389 is recommended when a number of properties are important. Still other ASTM alloy steels are available for special applications. Other specifications such as SAE J435 are used for cast steels in automotive applications. A summary of steel-casting specifications is available from the Steel Founders' Society of America, Des Plaines, Ill. KENI EDIT PA. Ferritic wrought alloys (the AISI 400 series) contain from 10.5 to 27% chromium. In addition, the use of argon-oxygen decarburization and vacuum-induction melting has produced several new ferritic grades including 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. Low in carbon content, but generally higher in chromium than the martensitic grades, these steels cannot be hardened by heat treating and are only moderately hardened by cold working. Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and retain their basic microstructure up to the melting point if sufficient Cr and Mo are present. In the annealed condition, strength of these grades is approximately 50% higher than that of carbon steels. Ferritic stainless steels are typically used where moderate corrosion resistance is required and where toughness is not a major need. They are also used where chloride stress-corrosion cracking may be a problem because they have high resistance to this type of corrosion failure. In heavy sections,

achieving sufficient toughness is difficult with the higher-alloyed ferritic grades. Typical applications include automotive trim and exhaust systems and heat-transfer equipment for the chemical and petrochemical industries. Martensitic steels are also in the AISI 400 series. These wrought, higher-carbon steels contain from 11.5 to 18% chromium and may have small quantities of additional alloying elements. They are magnetic, can be hardened by heat treatment, and have high strength and moderate toughness in the hardened-and-tempered condition. Forming should be done in the annealed condition. Martensitic stainless steels are less resistant to corrosion than the austenitic or ferritic grades. Two types of martensitic steels -- 416 and 420F -- have been developed specifically for good machinability. Martensitic stainless steels are used where strength and/or hardness are of primary concern and where the environment is relatively mild from a corrosive standpoint. These alloys are typically used for bearings, molds, cutlery, medical instruments, aircraft structural parts, and turbine components. Type 420 is used increasingly for molds for plastics and for industrial components requiring hardness and corrosion resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels develop very high strength through a low-temperature heat treatment that does not significantly distort precision parts. Compositions of most precipitationhardening stainless steels are balanced to produce hardening by an aging treatment that precipitates hard, intermetallic compounds and simultaneously tempers the martensite. The beginning microstructure of PH alloys is austenite or martensite. The austenitic alloys must be thermally treated to transform austenite to martensite before precipitation hardening can be accomplished. These alloys are used where high strength, moderate corrosion resistance, and good fabricability are required. Typical applications include shafting, high-pressure pumps, aircraft components, hightemper springs, and fasteners. Cast stainless steels usually have corresponding wrought grades that have similar compositions and properties. However, there are small but important differences in composition between cast and wrought grades. Stainless-steel castings should be specified by the designations established by the ACI (Alloy Casting Institute), and not by the designation of similar wrought alloys. Service temperature provides the basis for a distinction between heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant cast grades. The C series of ACI grades designates the corrosion-resistant steels; the H series designates the heat-resistant steels, which can be used for structural applications at service temperatures between 1,200 and 2,200F. Carbon and nickel contents of the H-series alloys are considerably higher than those of the C series. H-series steels are not immune to corrosion, but they corrode slowly -- even when exposed to fuel-combustion products or atmospheres prepared for carburizing and nitriding. C-series grades are used in valve, pumps, and fittings. H-series grades are used for furnace parts and turbine components. Galling and wear are failure modes that require special attention with stainless steels because these materials serve in many harsh environments. They often operate, for example, at high temperatures, in food-contact applications, and where access is limited. Such restrictions prevent the use of lubricants, leading to metal-to-metal contact -- a condition that promotes galling and accelerated wear. In a sliding-wear situation, a galling failure mode occurs first, followed by dimensional loss due to wear, which is, in turn, usually followed by corrosion. Galling is a severe form of adhesive wear that shows up as torn areas of the metal surface. Galling can be minimized by decreasing contact stresses or by the use of protective surface layers such as lubricants (where acceptable), weld overlays, platings, and nitrided or carburized surface treatments. Test results from stainless-steel couples (table) indicate the relatively poor galling resistance of austenitic grades and even alloy 17-4 PH, despite its high hardness. Among the standard grades, only AISI 416 and 440C performed well. Good to excellent galling resistance was demonstrated by Armco's Nitronic 32 and 60 alloys (the latter were developed specifically for antigalling service). Recent research findings prove that adding silicon to a high-manganese, nitrogen-strengthened austenitic stainless alloy produces a wear-resistant stainless steel. Wear and corrosion resistance are still considered unavoidable trade-offs in stainless, but the new formula promises to resist both conditions. Beating corrosion is the number one reason for choosing stainless. But in cases where parts are difficult to lubricate, most stainless steels cannot resist wear. Under high loads and insufficient lubrication, stainless often sports a type of surface damage known as galling. In critical parts, galling can lead to seizure or freezing, which can shut down machinery. Designers typically get around galling by using cast alloys or by applying a cobalt facing to stainless parts. Either way, the fixes can be expensive and may pose new problems that accompany the hard-

Alloy Steel

A steel that contains an additional alloying element.

facing process. These include maintaining uniform facing thickness and ensuring proper adhesion between facing and substrate. A new stainless formula aims to sidestep these difficulties by offering an alternative to expensive wear-resistant materials. In search of a cost-effective alternative, researchers at Carpenter Technology, Reading, Pa., looked at elemental effects of silicon, manganese, and nickel on galling resistance of nitrogen-strengthened, austenitic stainless steels. Results of an initial test program determined that silicon was a catalyst for galling resistance, while nickel and manganese were not. The silicon levels in a recently developed gall-resistant stainless alloy are between 3 and 4%. Silicon levels must remain lower than 5% to maintain the proper metallurgical structure. In addition, too much silicon decreases nitrogen solubility. To maintain strength, higher amounts of costly nickel would need to be added. Researchers can now define optimum composition limits for a gall-resistant stainless steel. To prove the new steel's validity, properties such as galling, wear, and corrosion are evaluated and compared with commercially available stainless steels. Four alloys, a gall-resistant austenitic alloy called GallTough, another austenitic alloys with higher nickel and manganese content (16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn), and Types 304 and 430 stainless steels are included in the comparison. Results show the galling threshold for gall-resistant stainless is over 15 times higher than that of conventional stainless steels. In addition, gall-resistant stainless withstands more than twice the stress without galling compared to the 16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn alloy. Yet, the new formula sacrifices only a slight amount of corrosion resistance. For strength and hardness, both gall-resistant stainless and the 16Cr-8Ni-4Si-8Mn alloy beat Types 304 and 430 alloys. The new alloy also shows a uniquely high ultimate tensile strength, possibly due to martensite formation during tensile testing. Ductility for all four alloys is excellent. These findings indicate that gall-resistant alloys can economically bridge the gap between corrosion, galling, and metal-to-metal wear resistance.

Annealing Austenitic Stainless Steel Carbide

The steady heating of a metal at a certain temperature followed by a gradual cooling process. A type of stainless steel with an FCC crystal structure that is relatively expensive but the most effective at resisting corrosion. A compound developed by the combination of carbon with usually chromium, tungsten, or titanium that is used in metal cutting tools for its hardness and wear resistance. To pour a liquid material into a mold so that it further cools and solidifies into shape. A metal consisting of iron, over 2.11% carbon, and 1 to 3% silicon. Cast irons normally contain trace amounts of other elements. A shiny, hard, steel-gray metal used in ferrous alloys to add hardness and wear resistance to steel. Stainless steels contain large amounts of chromium. A protective film that develops on the surface of stainless steel and helps prevent corrosion. The shaping of metal at temperatures much lower than the metal's molten state. Steel is often cold worked at room temperature. A group of tool steels primarily used in dies that form metal at non-elevated temperatures.

Cast Cast Iron

Chromium

Chromium Oxide Cold Working

Cold-Work Tool Steel

Compressive Strength

The ability of a material to resist forces that attempt to squeeze or compress the material together. The ability of a metal to withstand a constant weight or force at elevated temperatures. The regular, repeating pattern of atoms in a metal. Crystal structures develop as a metal cools and solidifies. A device used to mechanically shape or form sheet metal. A type of cast iron with a similar composition to gray cast iron, but with improved ductility. Ductile cast iron contains tiny spheres of graphite. The ability of a metal to be drawn, stretched, or formed without breaking. A type of stainless steel with a BCC crystal structure that is magnetic and relatively inexpensive.

Creep Strength Crystal Structure

Die Ductile Cast Iron

Ductility Ferritic Stainless Steel

Ferrous Metal

A metal that contains iron.

Free Machining Steel

A grade of steel that has been manufactured with a composition and heat treatment intended to improve the machinability of the metal. A soft, black form of carbon. Excess carbon appears as flakes in cast irons and helps to dampen vibrations and improve machinability. A type of cast iron with high levels of carbon and excellent compression strength. Gray cast iron is the most common cast iron. The heating and cooling processes used to change the structure of a material and alter its mechanical properties. A cold-work tool steel with substantial amounts of chromium and carbon. High-chromium highcarbon tool steels offer good dimensional accuracy, wear resistance, and machinability. Carbon steels that contain more than 0.5% carbon. A group of tool steels used to machine metals at high cutting speeds. High-speed tool steel stays hard at high temperatures and resists abrasion. A type of steel that contains low levels of carbon and alloying elements that exhibits good strength and is relatively inexpensive. These steels are typically used in large structures. The shaping of metal at temperatures close to the metal's molten state. Steel is typically hot worked at temperatures approximately 1300F. A tool steel used to make tools that form metals at high temperatures. Carbon steels that contain less than 0.3% carbon. A type of cast iron with a similar composition to white cast iron, but with improved malleability. Malleable cast iron is annealed. A hard, brittle, gray-white metal used in ferrous alloys to add strength and hardness to steel and other metals. A type of stainless steel with a distorted BCC crystal structure that is relatively strong but less effective at resisting corrosion. Carbon steels that contain between 0.3 and 0.5% carbon. A low-carbon tool steel used to make plastic molds. A hard, silvery-white metal used in ferrous alloys to add toughness, creep strength, and wear

Graphite

Gray Cast Iron

Heat Treatment

High-Carbon HighChromium Tool Steel High-Carbon Steel High-Speed Tool Steel

High-Strength LowAlloy Steel Hot Working

Hot-Work Tool Steel Low-Carbon Steel Malleable Cast Iron

Manganese

Martensitic Stainless Steel Medium-Carbon Steel Mold Steel Molybdenum

resistance to steel. Molybdenum is a key element in many high-speed tool steels. Nickel A hard, malleable, silvery white metal used in ferrous alloys to add strength, toughness, and impact resistance to steel. Not containing or composed of iron. A cold-work tool steel that effectively holds its dimensions and is used to make structural parts, jigs, and bushings. The basic type of steel, which contains less than 3% of elements other than iron and carbon. A metal component that is used to shear and separate metal through a hole or form metal. Punches are used in the stamping industry to cut and form sheet metal. A plain carbon steel that contains added sulfur and phosphorus for improved machinability.

Nonferrous Oil-Hardening Tool Steel Plain Carbon Steel Punch

Resulfurized And Rephosphorized Steel Resulfurized Steel Shock-Resisting Tool Steel Special-Purpose Tool Steel Stainless Steel Steel

A plain carbon steel that contains added sulfur for improved machinability. A low-carbon tool steel that is designed with excellent toughness and is used to make pneumatic chisels and heavy-duty punches. A low-alloy tool steel that offers intermediate hardening depth and a variety of specific properties.

A type of steel that contains more than 15% chromium and exhibits excellent corrosion resistance. A metal consisting of iron and up to approximately 1.5% carbon, usually with small amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon as well. An alloy consisting of three or more elements that is very expensive and designed to perform at elevated temperatures. A specialized type of alloy steel that exhibits excellent strength, toughness, and wear resistance. Tool steels are used in cutting tools, punches, and other industrial tooling. A metal added to ferrous alloys to facilitate the development of carbides. Pure vanadium is a grayish silvery metal and is soft and ductile. An inexpensive low-alloy tool steel that offers various degrees of hardness and wear resistance.

Superalloy

Tool Steel

Vanadium

Water-Hardening Tool Steel Weldability

The ability of a metal to facilitate the welding process and create an effective joint.

White Cast Iron Yield Strength

A type of cast iron with lower levels of carbon and improved tensile strength. The maximum force that a material can withstand before it begins to deform.