FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS
ADKNOWLEDGEMENT SYNOPSIS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. INTRODUCTION FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM I.G ENGINE BEARING WITH BEARING CAP SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE TURBINE WITH BLOWER ARRANGEMENT WORKING PRINCIPLE DESIGN AND DRAWINGS LIST OF MATERIAL COST ESTIMATION

11. 12. 13.

ADVANTAGES APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY PHOTOGRAPHY

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SYNOPSIS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-1 SYNOPSIS

The progress of automobiles for transportation has been intimately associated with the progress of civilization. The automobile of today is the result of the

accumulation of many years of pioneering research and development. An attempt has been made in this project; the Automobile four wheels to be act as a steering so that the u turn is occur very easily when compare to ordinary vehicle. Our fore most aim in selecting this project is to use four wheel steering mechanism for motorized by using. It is also good with regard to economical considerations and automobile applications.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION

1. FRONT WHEEL MECHANISM:-

RACK AND PINION STEERING:Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-andpinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle (see diagram above). The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels. On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to

make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right). The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance. However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio. Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.

2. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:The back wheel is coupled by the front wheel steering mechanism for motorized with the help of motorized joint.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I.C ENGINE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 3 3. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:1. D.C MOTOR WITH RACK AND PINION ARRANGEMENT:D.C MOTOR:12 VOLT/40 RPM/90 WATTS PERMANENT MAGNET GEARED MOTOR:DESCRIPTION OF DC MOTOR

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is given by Flemings left hand rule. When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt wound or series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic field and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb indicates the direction of the motion of conductor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:

Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor carrying no current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away from the viewer, but the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is no movement of the conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field. The field due to the current in the conductor supports the main field above the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Movement of Conductor

N Magnetic flux

S current carrying Conductor

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor. It is found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor downwards as shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the strengthening of flux lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be pushed upwards (figure-IV).

Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above figure. in view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move downwards, whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces acting on the coil sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is opposite to one another. As the coil is wound on the armature core which is supported by the bearings, the armature will now rotate. The commutator periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the armature. Therefore the armature will have a continuous rotation. A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors are wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for producing flux. The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.

An armature or rotor A commutator

Brushes An axle A field magnet A DC power supply of some sort

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets to create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel.

So if you have 2 bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the North end of one magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the North end of one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will repel south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion. In the diagram above and below you can see two magnets in the motor, the armature (or rotor) is an electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet (the field magnet could be an electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it is not to save power).

RACK AND PINIAN ARRANGEMENT:

The block is the impartent part of the unit as it houses the rack and pinion. This block converts linear motion into rotary motion. Rack and pinion gear system is used to transmit rotary motion into linear motion. The rack is a portion of a gear having an infinite pitch diameter and the line of action is tangent to the pinion. Pinion: This is a gear wheel which is provided to get mesh with rack to convert the linear motion into rotary motion. They are made up of Cast iron.

Rack: Rack teeth are cut horizontally about the required length. This is made up of Cast iron.

BATTERIES
INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage. In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Low cost Long life High reliability High overall efficiency Low discharge

(6)

Minimum maintenance (A) (B) Ampere hour efficiency Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

2.1

LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (HSO). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage, as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

2.2

CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the electrolyte, consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This construction enables the active material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge produces the positive and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide (pbo). The negative electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer.

The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding water. The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

CONTROL UNIT -89C52

In our project 89C52 Microcontroller is used as a control unit. INTRODUCTION ABOUT MICRO CONTROLLER: A microcontroller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory (RAM, ROM or EPROM), various I/O features such as serial port(s), parallel port(s), Timer/Counter(s), Interrupt controller, Data Acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital Converter (ADC), Digital to Analog Converter (DAC), everything integrated onto a single silicon chip. It does not mean that any micro controller should have above said features on-chip. Depending on the need and area of application for which it is designed, the on-chip features present in it may or may not include all the individual sections said above. Any micro computer system requires memory to store a sequence of instructions making up a program, parallel port or serial port for communicating with an external system, timer/counter for control purposes like generating time delays, baud rate for the serial port, apart from the controlling unit called the Central Processing Unit. MEMORY ASSOCIATED WITH AT-89C52: PROGRAM MEMORY: A program memory is a block of memory, which can be used to store a sequence of program codes (by using special EPROM / PROM programmers). It can only be read from and not written into, under normal operating conditions.

There can be up to 64 k bytes of program memory in AT-89C52. in ROM and EPROM versions of the MCS-351 family of devices, the lower 4K are provided on-chip whereas in ROM fewer versions, all program memory is external. In ROM and EPROM versions of this device, if the special control signals EA (External Access enable) is strapped off Vcc, and then program fetches to addresses 0000 to 0FFF are directed to the internal ROM. The program fetch will be from external memory, where EA* is grounded. After reset, the CPU begins execution from address location 0000 of the program memory. Figure shows a map of the AT-89C52-program memory FFFF 1000 0FFF 0000
60K Bytes Internal 4 K Bytes Internal

FFFF OR 0000
64 K Bytes External

DATA MEMORY:

Data memory is the Read/Write memory. Hence, it can be both read from and written into. AT-89C52 has got 128 bytes of internal data memory and 64K of external data memory. FF 80 7F 00

SFRS DIRECT ADDRESS DIRECT SING AND ONLY INDIRECT ADDRESSI NG

FFFF AND 0000

64 K Bytes External

INTERNAL DATA MEMORY:

Internal data memory addresses are one byte wide, which includes 128 bytes of onchip RAM plus a number of special Function Registers. The 128 bytes of RAM can be accessed either by direct addressing (MOV data address) or by indirect addressing (MOV @ Ri). The lowest 32bytes (00-1F) of on-chip RAM are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers each. Program instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7 > Bits 3 and 4 (PSW.3 and PSW.4) in register program status word (PSW) select which register bank is n use. This allows more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are shorter than instructions that use direct addressing. Reset initializes the stack pointer register to 7 and its incremented once to start from locating 08, which is register R0 of second register bank. Hence, in order to use more than one register bank, the stack pointer should be initialized to a different location of RAM if it is not used for data storage.

The next 16 bytes (20-2F) from a block of bit addressable memory space, which can also byte addressed.

Bytes 30 through 7F are available to the user as data RAM. However, is the stack pointer has been initialized to this area, enough number of bytes should be left a side to prevent stack overflow.

I/O STRUCTURE OF AT-89C52:

AT-89C52 has four 8-bit parallel ports (hence 8*4=32 I/O lines are available). All four parallel ports are bi-directional. Each line consists of a latch, an output driver and an input buffer.

The four ports are named as port 0 (po), port 1 (p1), port 2 (p2) and port 3(p3). They are bit addressable and has to be represented in the form PX.Y is i.e. bit Y of port X while using bit addressing mode. PX.0 is the LSB (least significant Bit) of port x and px.7 is the MSB (Most Significant Bit) of that port. Out of the four ports, port 0 and port 2 are used in accesses to external memory. All the port 3 pins are multifunctional. Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional with internal pull-ups Port pin P3.0 P3.1 P3.2 P3.3 P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P3.7 Alternate Functions RXD (Serial input port) TXD (Serial output port) INTO (External Interrupt 0) INT1 (External Interrupt 1) T0 (Timer 0 External input) T1 (Timer 1 External Input) WR (External Data memory write strobe) RD (External Data memory Read Strobe)

PORT 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. It is also the multiplexed low order address and data bus during access to external memory. It also receives the instruction bytes during EPROM programming and outputs instruction bytes during program verification. (External pull-ups are required during verification). Port 0 can sink (and operation and source) eight LS TTL input.

PORT 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional with internal pull-ups. It receives the low order address byte during EPROM program verification. The port-1 output buffers can sink/source four LS TTL inputs.

PORT 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional with external pull-ups. It emits the high order address byte during accesses to external memory. It also receives, these high-order address bits during EPROM programming Verification. Port 2 can sink/source four LS TTL inputs.

RST:

While the oscillator is running a high on this pin for two machine cycles resets the device. A small external pull down resistor (8.2k) from RST to Vss permits power on reset when a capacitor (10 micro frequencies) also connected from this pin to Vcc.

ALE/PROG: Address latch enable is the output for latching low byte of the address, during access 10 external memory. ALE is activated at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency except during an external data memory access at which time one ALE pulse is skipped. ALE can sink/source eight LS TTL inputs. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during EPROM programming.

PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, during fetches form external program memory. PSEN is not activated during fetches from internal program memory. PSEN can sink/source 8 LS TTL inputs.

EA/Vpp: When external access enable (EA) is held high, the AT-89C52 execute out of internal program memory (Unless the program counter exceeds OFF (H)). When EA is held low, the AT-89C52 H executes only out of external program memory. This pin also receives the 21 Volts programming. Supply Voltage (Vpp) during EPROM programming. This pin should not be floated during normal.

XTAL1: It is inputs to the inverting amplifier that forms the oscillator. XTAL1 should be grounded when an external oscillator is used.

XTAL 2: It is Outputs to the inverting amplifier that forms the oscillator, and input to the internal clock generator, receives the external oscillator signal when an external oscillator is used.

Vss Vcc Operation.

Circuit ground potential Supply Voltage during Programming Verification and normal

TIMERS/COUNTERS: AT-89C52 has two 16-bit timer/counter 0, and timer/counter 1. They can be configured in any of the four operating modes, which are selected by bit-pars (m1, 0) in register TMOD (Timer/counter Mode control). Modes 0, 1 and 2 are the same for the timer/counters. Mode 3 is different.

FEATURES OF AT-89C52: Now a days an 8-bit AT-89C52/8031/8751 and 16 bit 8097 micro controllers available in the form of kits. Its special features are summarized as: 4k Bytes of Flash 128 Bytes of RAM

32 I/O lines A five vector two level interrupt architecture. A full duplex serial port On chip Oscillator and clock circuitry.

ADDRESSING MODES: The AT-89C52 instructions operate on data stored in internal CPU registers, external memory or on the I/O ports. There are a number of methods (modes) in which these registers, memory (internal or external) and I/O Ports (Internal / External) can be addressed, called addressing modes. This section gives a brief summary of the various types of addressing modes available in AT-89C52. These Modes are: Immediate

 Direct Indirect

Register Register Specific Indexed

IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING: In this mode, the data to be operated upon is in the location immediately following the opcodes. For example, the instruction, MOV A, # 41 -Loads the accumulator with the hex value 41. // Signifies IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING.

DIRECT ADDRESSING: In direct addressing, the operand is specified by an 8-bit address field in the instruction. For example, the instruction, INC 20

Increments the contents of the On-Chip data address 20 by one.

INDIRECT ADDRESSING: In indirect addressing, the instruction specifies a register, which contains the address of the operand. Both internal and external RAM can be indirectly addressed. The address register for 8-bit address can be R0 or R1 of the selected register bank or the stack pointer. The address register for 16-bit address can only be the 16-bit data pointer register, DPTR. For example, the instruction, MOVX @DPTR, A -Writes the contents of the accumulator to the address held by the DPTR register. RESISTOR ADDRESSING: The register banks, containing resistors R0 through R7, can be accessed by certain instructions, which carry a 3-bit register specification within the opcode of the instruction. Instructions that access the registers this way are code efficient, since this mode eliminates an address byte.

When the instruction is executed, one of the eight resistors in the selected bank at the execution time by two bank select bits is selected at the execution time by the two bank select bits in the PSW. For example, the instruction, MOV A, R0 -Copies the contents of the resistor R0 (of the selected bank) to the accumulator. INDEXED ADDRESSING:

Only program memory can be accessed with indexed intended for reading look-up tables in program memory. A 16-bit base resistor (Either DPTR or the Program counter) points to the base of the table and accumulator is set up with the table entry number. The address of the table entry in program memory is formed by adding the accumulator data to the base pointer. The instruction, MOVC A,@A+DPTR This function reads the contents of program memory, whose address is obtained by adding the content of DPTR and accumulator copies it to the accumulator.

PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89C52:

PDIP

P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RST (R X D) P3.0 (T X D) P3.1 (INT 0) P3.2 (INT 1) P3.3 (T 0) P3.4 (A 14) (T1) P3.5 (WR) P3.6 (A 12) (RD) P3.7 (A 11) XTAL 2 XTAL 1 GND (A 8) PLCC

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21

Vcc P 0.0(AD 0) P 0.1 (AD 1) P 0.2 (AD 2) P 0.3 (AD 3) P 0.4 (AD 4) P 0.5 (AD 5) P 0.6 (AD 6) P 0.7 (AD 7) EA / VPP ALE/PROG PSEN P2.7 (A 15) P2.6 P2.5 (A 13) P2.4 P2.3 P2.2 (A 10) P2.1 (A 9) P2.0

P 0. 0 P 0 . 7 P2.0 P2.7
PORT 0 DRIVERS PORT 2 DRIVERS

Vcc

GND

RAM ADDR RESISTOR

RAM

PORT 0 LATCH

PORT 2 LATCH

FLASH

B REGISTER

ACC

STACK POINTER

PROGRAM ADDRESS REGISTER

TMP 2

TMP 1

BUFFER

PC INCREME N-TER INTERRUPT SERIAL PORT AND TIMER BLOCKS PSW

ALU

PROGRAM COUNTER

TIMING AND CONTROL

INSTRUCT -ION REGISTER PORT 1 LATCH PORT 3 LATCH

DPTR

SEN ALE/ ROG A/Vpp

OSC

ST

PORT 1 DRIVERS

PORT 3 DRIVERS

P1.0 P1.7 ACCUMULATOR:

P3.0 P3.7

Accumulator is the Accumulator register mnemonics for Accumulator. Specific instruction however, refer to the Accumulator simply A.

B REGISTER:

The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other instructions can be treated as another scratch pad register.

PROGRAM STATUS WORD:

The PSW resistor contains program status information. The program status word (PSW) contains several status bits that reflect the current state of the CPU. The PSW resides in SFR space. It contains the carry bit, the auxiliary carry 9for BCD operations), the two register bank select bits, the overflow flag a parity bit and two user definable status

flags. The carry bit other than serving the functions of a carry bit in arithmetic operations, also serves as the Accumulator for a number of Boolean operations. The bits and RSI are used to select one of the register bans. A number instruction refers of their RAM location R0 through R7. The selection of which the four banks is being referred to is made on the bass of the bits RS0 and RS1 execution time.

The lower 32B are grouped into 4 banks of 8 resistors. Program instructions call out there resistors as R0 through R7 bits in the PSW select which register is n use. The parity bit reflects the number is in the accumulator. P=1 if the accumulator contains an old number of 1 s and p=0 if the accumulator contains an even number of 1 s. Thus the number of 1 s in the accumulator plus P is always even. Two bits in the PSW are uncommitted and may be used as general-purpose status flags.

PROGRAM STATUS WORD OF AT89C52 DEVICES:

AC

FO

RS1

RS0

OV

Carry flag receives carry out from bit-1 of ALU operation

Parity of accumulator by hard ware to 1 bit if it contains an old number of 1 s otherwise set to 0

Auxiliary carry flag receives carry out from bit-1 of addition operands

User Definable Flag

Overflow Flag set by Arithmetic Operation

General Purpose Status Flag

Resistor Bank Select bit- 0

Register Bank Select bit-1

THE LOWER 128 BYTES OF INTERNAL RAM

7F (H) 2F (H) 20 (H)

Bit addressable Space Bit address 0-7F (H)

Bank Select Bit In PSW

11Bank-3
18 (H) Bank-2 10 (H) Bank-1 08 (H) Bank-0 00 (H)

1F (H) 17 (H) 0F (H) 07 (H)

10 resistors

4 Banks of 8 R0 - R7

01 00

STACK POINTER:

The stack pointer resistor is 8-bit wide. It is incremented before data is stored during PUSH and CALL execution while the stack may where in on-chip RAM. The stack pointer is initialized to 07(H) after a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location 08(H).

DATA POINTER:

The data pointer (DPTR) consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its intended function is to hold a 16-bit address. It may be manipulated as a 16-bit resistor or 08 two independent bit registers. Ports 0 to 3 p0, p1, p2 and p3 are the SFR latches for ports 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

SERIAL DATA BUFFER:

The serial data buffer is actually two separate resistors transmit buffer and a receive buffer resistor. When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer where it is held for serial transmission. (Moving a byte to SBUF is what initiates the transmission) When data is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.

TIME RESISTORS:

Resistors pairs (TH0, TL), (TH1, TL1) and (TH2, TL2) are the 16-bits counting resistors for the interrupt system, the timer counters and the serial port.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 4

BEARING WITH BEARING CAP

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered the bearing may develop cracks. Bearing is made upon steel material and bearing cap is mild steel. INTRODUCTION Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in order to minimize friction and power loss. While the concept of the ball bearing dates back at least to Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has become remarkably sophisticated. This technology was brought to its p resent state o f perfection only after a long period of research and development. The benefits of such specialized research can be obtained when it is possible to use a standardized bearing of the proper size and type. However, such bearings cannot be used indiscriminately without a careful study of the loads and operating conditions. In addition, the bearing must be provided with adequate mounting, lubrication and sealing. Design engineers have usually two possible sources for obtaining information which they can use to select a bearing for their particular application: a) Textbooks b) Manufacturers

Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly detailed and aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the practicing designer. They, in most cases, contain information on how to design rather than how to select a bearing for a particular application. Manufacturers catalogs, in turn, are also excellent and contain a wealth of information which relates to the products of the particular manufacturer. These catalogs, however, fail to provide alternatives which may divert the designers interest to products not manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest selection of many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.

For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of the subject matter in an objective manner, using data obtained from different texts, handbooks and manufacturers literature. This information will enable the reader to select the proper bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designers interest exceeds the scope of the presented material, a list of references is provided at the end of the Technical Section. At the same time, we are expressing our thanks and are providing credit to the sources which supplied the material presented here.

Construction and Types of Ball Bearings

A ball bearing usually consists of four parts: an inner ring, an outer ring, the balls and the cage or separator. To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls run in curvilinear grooves in the rings. The radius of the groove is slightly larger than the radius of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided. The bearing is thus permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular misalignment between the assembled shaft and mounting. The separator keeps the balls evenly spaced and prevents them from touching each other on the sides where their relative velocities are the greatest. Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of types and sizes. Single-row radial bearings are made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series

200 Series

300 Series

Axial Thrust

Angular Contact Self-aligning

Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400. Most, but not all, manufacturers use a numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are multiplied by 5, the result will be the bore in millimeters.

The digit in the third place from the right indicates the series number. Thus, bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore. For additional digits, which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer to manufacturers details. Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls. For bearing designations of Quality Bearings & Components (QBC), see special pages devoted to this purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a considerable amount of axial thrust. However, when the load is directed entirely along the axis, the thrust type of bearing should be used. The angular contact bearing will take care of both radial and axial loads. The self-aligning ball bearing will take care of large amounts of angular misalignment. An increase in radial capacity may be secured by using rings with deep grooves, or by employing a double-row radial bearing. Radial bearings are divided into two general classes, depending on the method of assembly. These are the Conrad, or no filling-notch type, and the maximum, or filling-notch type. In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as shown in Fig. 1-4(a). Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in place. In the maximum-type

bearing, the balls are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100 Series Extra Light 200 Series Light 300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular Contact Bearing Self-aligning Bearing Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4 Methods of Assembly Conrad or non-filling notch type (b) Maximum or filling notch type for Ball Bearings (a)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SPROCKET WITH CHAIN DRIVE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 5

SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE

This is a cycle chain sprocket. The chain sprocket is coupled with another generator shaft. The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling power to rotational power, by engaging with the sprocket. The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways: 1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two. 2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no slippage in a sprocket. 3. The shape of the teeth is different in gears and sprockets.

Figure Types of Sprockets

Engagement with Sprockets:

Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylinders, chains are usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the following section, we explain the relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by sprockets. 1. Back tension First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5 shows a rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt hangs down from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is loaded with tension (T0), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will be: T1 = T0 3 eu For example, T0 = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley, = 0.3; the wrap angle u = (180). T1 = T0 3 2.566 = 256.6 N In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive power only when there is 100 N of back tension.

For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more drive power is to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance, like grease

or oil, which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact surface, the belt cannot deliver the required tension. In the chain's case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth configuration is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth's reactive force is opposite the chain's tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain's tension. Therefore, the chain will work without back tension.

Figure Flat Belt Drive

Figure Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

Figure The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage and slip off of the roller. The balances of forces that exist around the roller are shown in Figure 2.7, and it is easy to calculate the required back tension.

For example, assume a coefficient of friction = 0, and you can calculate the back tension (Tk) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this formula: Tk = T0 3 sin k-1 sin( + 2b) Where: Tk= T0 = = N= 2b = k= back tension at tooth k chain tension sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 64/N() number of teeth sprocket tooth angle (360/N) the number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the nearest whole number to be safe By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back tension at sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of a flat belt. Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a flat belt. Now let's compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension. Although in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of pulley teeth and the revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommendation is to use 1/3.5 of the allowable tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in below Figure 2.8. Therefore, our 257 N force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back tension.

Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain's back tension is only 1/75 that of toothed belts.

Figure 2.8 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation (see Basics Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the sprocket teeth until it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the sprocket. Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and positions of engagement. Figure 2.10 shows the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain. In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face:

a: Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place; b: Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together; c: Where the tooth can guide the roller but can't transmit tension. If the roller, which should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth.

The chain's wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket teeth and their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that sprockets with large numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller sprockets are limited by other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing strength; therefore, in the case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to 1.5 percent (in transmission chain).

Figure 2.9 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

Figure 2.10 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and an Elongated Chain

Figure 2.11 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less than transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch conveyor chains use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face.

A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of tensile forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems. The function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It is convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of construction. We can sort chains into five types: Cast iron chain. Cast steel chain. Forged chain. Steel chain. Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in some special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treatment equipment; forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories. In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: "steel chain," especially the type called "roller chain," which makes up the largest share of chains being produced, and "plastic chain." For the most part, we will refer to "roller chain" simply as "chain."

NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing, and roller. In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their uses, which can be broadly divided into six types: 1. Power transmission chain. 2. Small pitch conveyor chain. 3. Precision conveyor chain. 4. Top chain. 5. Free flow chain. 6. Large pitch conveyor chain. The first one is used for power transmission; the other five are used for conveyance. In the Applications section of this book, we will describe the uses and features of each chain type by following the above classification. In the following section, we will explain the composition of power transmission chain, small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there are special features in the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and free flow chain, checks the appropriate pages in the Applications section about these features.

Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

Connecting Link This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit in the connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting links which have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Tap Fit Connecting Link In this link, the pin and the tap fit connecting link plate are press fit. It has fatigue strength almost equal to that of the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2 Standard Connecting Link (top) and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

Offset Link An offset link is used when an odd number of chain links is required. It is 35 percent lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. The pin and two plates are slip fit. There is also a two-pitch offset link available that

has fatigue strength as great as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3 Offset Link

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TYPES OF STEERING MECHANISM

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 6 TYPES OF STEERING MECHANISM

1. Power Rack-and-pinion Steering 2. Re-circulating-ball Steering 3. Power Steering

1.

Power Rack-and-pinion:When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly

different design.

Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is connected to the rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston. Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to move, which in turn moves the rack, providing the power assist. We'll check out the components that provide the high-pressure fluid, as well as decide which side of the rack to supply it to, later in the article. First, let's take a look at another type of steering.

2. Re-circulating-ball Steering:Re-circulating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.

The re-circulating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads are filled with ball bearings that recirculation through the gear as it turns. The balls actually serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear; second, they reduce slop in the gear.

Slop would be felt when you change the direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would come out of contact with each other for a moment, making the steering wheel feel loose. Power steering in a re-circulating-ball system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion system. Assist is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block. 3. Power Steering:-

There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the rackand-pinion or recirculation-ball mechanism.

Pump

The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump (see diagram below). This pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set of retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.

As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves much more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.

The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not get too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.

Rotary Valve A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force (such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.

The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion bar is a thin rod of metal that twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to the steering wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which turns the wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque the driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque the driver uses to turn the wheels, the more the bar twists.

The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly. It also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on which type of steering the car has. The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly. It also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on which type of steering the car has.

As the bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside. Since the inner part of the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft (and therefore to the steering wheel), the amount of rotation between the inner and outer parts of the spool valve depends on how much torque the driver applies to the steering wheel.

When the steering wheel is not being turned, both hydraulic lines provide the same amount of pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is turned one way or the other, ports open up to provide high-pressure fluid to the appropriate line. It turns out that this type of power-steering system is pretty inefficient. Let's take a look at some advances we'll see in coming years that will help improve efficiency. The Future of Power Steering Since the power-steering pump on most cars today runs constantly, pumping fluid all the time, it wastes horsepower. This wasted power translates into wasted fuel.

You can expect to see several innovations that will improve fuel economy. One of the coolest ideas on the drawing board is the "steer-by-wire" or "drive-by-wire" system. These systems would completely eliminate the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering, replacing it with a purely electronic control system.

Essentially, the steering wheel would work like the one you can buy for your home computer to play games. It would contain sensors that tell the car what the driver is doing with the wheel, and have some motors in it to provide the driver with feedback on what the car is doing. The output of these sensors would be used to control a motorized steering system. This would free up space in the engine compartment by eliminating the steering shaft. It would also reduce vibration inside the car. General Motors has introduced a concept car, the Hy-wire, that features this type of driving system. One of the most exciting things about the drive-by-wire system in the GM Hy-wire is that you can fine-tune vehicle handling without changing anything in the car's mechanical components -- all it takes to adjust the steering is some new computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you will most likely be able to configure the controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons, just like you might adjust the seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of system to store distinct control preferences for each driver in the family. In the past fifty years, car steering systems haven't changed much. But in the next decade, we'll see advances in car steering that will result in more efficient cars and a more comfortable ride.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING PRINCIPLE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 7

WORKING PRINCIPLE

FRONT WHEEL MECHANISM:-

RACK AND PINION STEERING:Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-andpinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle (see diagram above). The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels. On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to

make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right). The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance. However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio. Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.

4. BACK WHEEL MECHANISM:The back wheel is coupled by the front wheel steering mechanism for motorized with the help of linking mechanism for motorized and universal joint.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

DESIGN OF D.C. MOTOR

Torque in a motor: By the term torque, it is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts. For an armature of a motor, to rotate about its centre, a tangential force is necessary. This force is developed with in the motor itself. Torque (T) Using the relation, B = = = T = = = = /a /(D/P) x P / ( D ) = ( Ia / A ) BDC Z Newton meters

x (Ia / A) x Z x x {P/ (D) } x D Z P Ia / ( 2A ) Newton meters 0.159 x x Z x Ia X (P/A) Newton meters 0.162 x x Z x Ia x (P/A) Kg-m

The torque given by the above equation is the developed torque in the machine. But the output torque is less than the developed torque due to friction and windage losses.

DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6204 Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) Thickness of Bearing (B) Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = = = 47 mm 14 mm 20 mm

Corner radii on shaft and housing

(From design data book)

Maximum Speed

14,000 rpm

(From design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm)

(D + d) / 2

(47 + 20) / 2

dm

33.5 mm

Spring index (C)

= =

( D /d ) 12 / 2 = 6

WALL STRESS FACTOR

Ks

4C 1 + 0.65 4C 4 C (4 X 6) -1 + 0.65 (4 X 6 )-4 6 1.258

Ks

DESIGN OF RACK AND PINION

DESIGN OF PINION

From PSG design data book (page no.7.18)

dmin > { (0.59/ cmax) [[Mt]/((1/E1)+(1/E2)) 2]}(1/3) _________________ (1) Where, cmax = maximum contact compressive stress N/m2

E1, E2 = Youngs modulus N/m2 Mt = Torque N-m E1 = E2 = 1.1106 N/m2 Calculation of cmax cmax = HB CB Kcl Where, HB CB = Brinell hardness number = coefficient depends on hardness Kcl = life factor
________________

(2)

Kcl N Where n N

= {[1 x 107]/N} 1/6 = 60 x n x T

_______________

(3)

= rpm = life in no. Of cycles

T = life in hours. = 8000 hours.

From P.S.G design data book (page no.2.4), CB = 20 HB = 200 Substituting the values of N, n, T in the equation [3], The value of kcl is obtained as 1.139. Kcl = 1.139. Substituting the values in equation [2] cmax = 20 x 200 x 1.1309 = 4520 x105 N/m2 Calculation of Mt Mt = 97420 x (Kw/n).
____________

(4)

For power calculation Centrifugal force, fc M = m 2 r = 0.2Kg

____________

(5)

W =mxg = 2n/60 R = 1m

Substituting the values of m, , r in equation [4]

fc Downward force, fd

= 0.216 N. = mxg = 0.2 x 9.81 = 1.962N.

Centrifugal force, f

= fc + fd = 0.216 + 1.962 = 2.178N

Torque = f x r = 2.178 x 1 = 2.178Nm. Power = Torque x angular velocity. = 2.178 x 1.05 = 2.28w

Substituting the value of kw and n in equation in [4], Mt = 22.21 [Mt] = 1.4 x Mt = 1.4 x 22.21 = 31.1 N-m

Substituting the values of cmax, [Mt], E1,E2

in equation [1],

The minimum diameter of the pinion is calculated to be 23.07mm. We have taken the standard diameter of pinion as 34mm.

Specification Of Pinion

Material Outside diameter Circular pitch Tooth depth Module Pressure angle Pitch circle diameter Addendum

: cast-iron : 34mm : 4.7mm : 3.375mm : 1.5mm : 21 : 31mm : 1.5mm

Dedendum Circular tooth Thickness Fillet radius Clearance

: 1.875mm : 2.355mm : 0.45mm : 0.375mm

Design of rack

Pitch circle diameter of the gear is = 31mm Circumference of the gear is = pitch circle diameter = 31 = 97.38mm The dimension is for 360 for one rotation For two rotations (Approx.) the rack minimum length is 194.76 mm

3.3.1 Specification Of Rack Minimum length of the teeth Material Module Cross-section : : : : 194.76 mm. cast iron 1.5mm 20 15mm Here : 215 mm used.

Teeth on the rack is adjusted for 215mm

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-9 LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi viii. ix. x

PARTS Frame Stand Steering Arrangement Wheel Bearing with Bearing Cap Dc motor Chain with Sprocket Connecting Tube Bolt and Nut Sheet

Qty. 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 meter 2

Material Mild Steel M.S Rubber M.S copper M.S Plastic M.S Plastic

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-10 COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST:Sl. No. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi viii. ix. x

PARTS Frame Stand Steering Arrangement Wheel Bearing with Bearing Cap Dc motor Chain with Sprocket Connecting Tube Bolt and Nut Sheet

Qty. 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 meter 2

Material Mild Steel M.S Rubber M.S copper M.S Plastic M.S Plastic =

Amount (Rs)

TOTAL
2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING: Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost =

Material Cost + Labour cost

= = Overhead Charges = = 20% of the manufacturing cost

TOTAL COST Total cost = = = Total cost for this project = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-11
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11 ADVANTAGES
Free from wear adjustment. Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate.

 It gives simplified very operation. Installation is simplified very much. Less time

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-12
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER-11 APPLICATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS

 Automobile application DISADVANTAGES 1. Additional cost is required 2. Additional space is required to install this arrangement in vehicles

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-13
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER 13 CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully. The FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM FOR MOTORIZED is working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our impression project work. Thus we have developed an FOUR WHEEL STEERING MECHANISM which helps to know how to achieve low cost automation. The application of pneumatics produces smooth operation. By using more techniques, they can be modified and developed according to the applications.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOMOBILE ENGG.

N.M AGGARWAL

S.K.KATARIA & SONS ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. S.SUBRAMANIAM

ALLIED PUBLISHERS LTD. THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS V.K.METHTA J.B.GUPTA S.K.KATARIA & SONS

CYBER REFERANCE

www.visionengineer.com www.tpup.com

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOTOGRAPHY