Geological Society of Australia Special Publication 22, 239257

CHAPTER 17Resolving multiple rift phases by strain-rate inversion in the Petrel Sub-basin, northwest Australia
S. BALDWIN1, 2, N. WHITE1* AND R. D. MLLER3
1 2 3 * Bullard Laboratories, Madingley Road, University of Cambridge, CB3 0EZ, UK. Department of Science Communication, Imperial College, London, SW7 2AZ, UK. School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Corresponding author: nwhite@esc.cam.ac.uk
The Petrel Sub-basin, located in the larger Bonaparte Basin, preserves >25 km of continuous sedimentary succession from Devonian to Holocene. It is an example of a deeply subsided, highly extended, sedimentary basin, which is characterised by stretching factors of 26. These high stretching factors are consistent with crustal thickness estimates obtained by gravity modelling. There is also excellent evidence for large amounts of syn-rift normal faulting particularly along the fringes of the basin. Here we use a strain-rate inversion method to extract information from exploration and synthetic wells to define the number, duration and magnitude of rift events in this basin. Our analyses show that the Petrel Sub-basin has recorded a minimum of three separate extension events that can be independently corroborated with periods of syn-rift faulting observed on seismic data. Our results suggest that the uniform stretching model can account for the large-scale observations in this basin. There is no obvious requirement to appeal to lithospheric simple shear or to significant depth-dependent stretching. Key Words: Petrel Sub-basin, sedimentary basin, strain-rate inversion, structural extension.

INTRODUCTION
The Bonaparte Basin, offshore northwestern Australia, is an unusually deep sedimentary basin. It has a geological history which spans almost the entire Phanerozoic and it contains a sedimentary succession ~25 km thick. This basin is the northernmost sedimentary basin in a much larger depositional system which trends northeastsouthwest along the North West Shelf of Australia. The Petrel Sub-basin lies within the larger Bonaparte Basin which trends at a high angle to North West Shelf itself (Figure 1). The shape of this sub-basin is clearly seen on free-air gravity data (Figure 2). The quality and quantity of data available for the Petrel Sub-basin presents a useful opportunity to investigate the subsidence and extensional history of this highly extended, deeply subsided sedimentary basin. We have analysed over 2500 km of deep seismic-reflection profiles, which image basement across the entire Petrel Sub-basin. Since exploration wells do not penetrate to depths greater than ~5 km, seismic data constrained by well data must play a crucial role in determining the development of this deep basin. We exploit a database of ~115 exploration wells, some of which sample the entire sedimentary succession down to basement, in order to constrain the ages and lithologies of interpreted seismic horizons. The basin ssuccession outcrops onshore where it has been biostratigraphically subdivided (Mory & Beere 1988). Free-air gravity data and wide-angle seismic profiles can also be used to test the amounts of extension inferred from subsidence modelling. We use synthetic well locations derived from seismicreflection data to constrain the deepest layers in the basin,

which are not penetrated by conventional wells. Once the spatial extent of the sedimentary basin has been sampled, we then employ inverse modelling to calculate the total tectonic subsidence and to extract the temporal variation of strain rate (White 1993, 1994). This information constrains the number, timing and magnitude of rift events. Evidence of syn-rift normal faulting suggests that the basin formed by extension and we assume that the mechanism of extension is bulk pure shear of the crust and lithospheric mantle, according to the model of McKenzie (1978). An algorithm described by White (1993) has been used to quantify the subsidence and strain-rate histories of many basins located worldwide with basement at less than 5 km (Wooler et al. 1992; Hall 1995; OLeary 1996; Butler 1996]. This study of the Petrel Sub-basin represents the first attempt to systematically quantify the spatial and temporal variation in subsidence and strain rate where basement depth exceeds ~5 km.

Structure and stratigraphy

Figure 3 shows the entire stratigraphic sequence of the Petrel Sub-basin, which ranges from Devonian to Holocene. A two-dimensional cross-section profile through the basin shows the structural asymmetry of the basement and the considerable thickness of the sedimentary section (~>25 km) (Figure 4). Our interpreted seismic horizons correlate with the main depositional sequences, which span the entire basin history (OBrien et al. 1993). The basement horizon defines the unconformable boundary between the base of the syn-rift Devonian sedimentary rocks in the Petrel Sub-basin and the fully compacted CambroOrdovician sedimentary sequence of the basement.

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Figure 1 Location of Petrel Sub-basin and distribution of total database used in study. Database comprises: 28 Petrel Sub-basin real wells and 115 synthetic wells; 85 North West Shelf real wells; 7500 km of reflection-seismic lines, including 2500 km of deep (14 s TWT) seismic data. Selected deep seismic lines from AGSO Surveys 100, 116 and 118 are displayed. Location of three real wells (Cambridge 1, Turtle 1, Barnett 2) and three synthetic wells (shallow, intermediate, deep) that were analysed for subsidence and strainrate variation are also shown. Bathymetry is contoured at 200 m intervals.

On free-air gravity data, the Petrel Sub-basin has a distinctive V-shaped morphology (Figure 2) and in the subsurface there is also evidence for structural asymmetry (Figures 5, 6). Basement character is best resolved on the southwest basin margin where it is offset by large faults which define half-grabens and have displacements of up to 5 km. On the opposing northeast margin, and throughout the central basin area, the character of the basement is poorly defined. Evidence of large-scale faulting is not clear on this northeast margin and from a structural point of view, this margin is essentially a ramp. Such a half-graben morphology with switching fault polarity typifies many continental rift zones (Rosendahl 1987; Morley et al. 1990; Wernicke & Tilke 1990; Ben-Avraham 1992). The intersection zone between the southwest and northeast conjugate margins results in a complicated pattern of cross-cutting fault relationships. The rifting which formed the Petrel Sub-basin started in the Late Devonian (at ca 369 Ma) and resulted in largescale crustal faulting and tectonic subsidence (Veevers 1988; Mory & Beere 1988; Mory 1991; OBrien et al. 1993). Examples of normal faults that show stratigraphic growth

are recognised on seismic profiles throughout the basin (Figures 4, 5). Maximum heaves are generally measured along seismic reflection profiles trending approximately northeastsouthwest. No other line orientation consistently records large normal fault displacements so we assume that the northeastsouthwest dip lines of the Geoscience Australia [formerly Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO)] deep seismic grid represent the apparent direction of maximum basin extension. There is a good correlation between the timing of normal faulting identified in seismic data and the identified periods of accelerated subsidence determined by theoretical analyses, which suggests that the cause of subsidence in the PetrelSub-basin is primarily lithospheric extension.

GRAVITY MODELLING
In the central-southern region, the Petrel Sub-basin has a prominent high positive gravity anomaly with a maximum amplitude of 70 mgal. This anomaly clearly bifurcates towards the north (Figure 2). Positive gravity anomalies are

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Figure 2 Gravity anomaly map for Petrel Sub-basin. Prominent gravity high, which appears to bifurcate towards the north, is evident in centre of basin. We model this anomaly and show that the central high anomaly is partly the result of interfering edge effects. Opposing basin margins in the south are so close that their rifted margin signatures overlap. As margins separate towards the north, so too do gravity signatures, giving the appearance of bifurcation.

normally assumed to be caused by mass excess located at depth. However, gravity models are not unique and it is not possible to unequivocally determine the cause of a given anomaly. For the Petrel Sub-basin, seismic reflection and wide-angle data can also be used to constrain the source of this anomaly. As a result of our analysis, we advocate the simplest possible interpretation of the gravity anomaly in the central Petrel Sub-basin. Three earlier workers modelled the prominent gravity high in the southern-central region of the basin (Gunn 1988; Mory 1991; Willcox 1996). Gunn and Willcox proposed buried igneous bodies as the source of the gravity anomaly, whereas Mory achieved a best fit by simply thinning the crust. Gunn suggested that the high gravity signature is caused by an intruded bifurcated axial dyke and by subsequent emplacement of oceanic crust. However, this explanation is not supported by independent evidence of magmatism in the Petrel Sub-basin during the Carboniferous at the time of the proposed dyke intrusion. Further evidence against oceanic crustal formation comes

from the results of the strain-rate modelling presented later in this paper, which do not predict melt generation during this Carboniferous rift period. In fact, significant melt generation is not expected at any time during basin evolution. Mory (1991) tested Gunns (1988) model and concluded that a dense axial dyke does not fit the observed anomaly. His best-fitting model assumes that the whole pre-existing sequence beneath the Petrel Sub-basin is thinned. Willcoxs (1996) model favours the presence of an intruded high-density axial body, similar to that proposed by Gunn (1988). The difference between these two models is the level at which the intruded body is placed within the crust. Gunn placed the axial dyke into the shallow syn-rift succession, whilst Willcox placed a body at depth within the lower crust. Willcoxs model achieves a good fit to the observed anomaly. However, as with Gunns model, the timing of this intrusive event is disputed. As noted earlier, no direct evidence of igneous activity is recorded anywhere in the Petrel Sub-basin during Devonian to Carboniferous rifting, although a deeply buried igneous body cannot be discounted.

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S. Baldwin, N. White and R. D. Mller Figure 3 Stratigraphic column for Petrel Subbasin showing formation names. We interpreted nineteen horizons basinwide from 369 to 65 Ma, which correspond to seismically recognisable layers at the base of each formation. Every horizon is intersected at least once by a well so age, lithology and palaeobathymetry could be determined as these parameters were required as input for subsidence modelling. For each horizon interpreted in actual wells there is some temporal scatter but it is less than 5 million years, which is negligible over the 369 million years history of the basin. Since temporal scatter is low, no diachroneity is assumed for basinwide interpreted horizons and synthetic wells derived from them.

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To test the southern-central gravity high and its bifurcated northern extension, we modelled the free-air gravity anomalies along two reflection seismic lines, namely AGSO Lines 100/01 and 100/03. These lines clearly define the structure of the basin and provide an important constraint for gravity modelling. Once basin structure was determined, densities were altered in order to fit the observed gravity anomaly. We found that the geometry of the Moho also had to be varied to fit the gravity data. The densities used to model the gravity anomalies were calculated from velocities measured during the 1996 AGSO Refraction Survey 168 of the Petrel Sub-basin and North West Shelf (Colwell & Kennard 1996). An unextended crustal thickness of 35 km was determined from wide-angle seismic modelling beneath the Kimberley Block at the southwest edge of the basin. In the Petrel Sub-basin, seismic-reflection data define the structure of the sedimentary succession but a clear Moho is not imaged, and therefore the shape of the base of the crust cannot be constrained. Wide-angle seismic data suggest that the crust thins beneath the basin (Colwell & Kennard 1996). We used the British Geological Surveys 2.5-D gravitymodelling program GRAVMAG (Pedley et al. 1993), to model the gravity anomaly along the depth-converted seismic profiles of AGSO Lines 100/01 and 100/03. Our models were created from polygons to which densities are assigned and these polygons define the structure of the crust. The

depths to, and densities of, nine polygons were defined, which corresponded to a lithospheric mantle layer, a crustal layer, six sedimentary layers and a layer of seawater (Figure 7). We then manipulated the density and geometry of the crust beneath the sedimentary succession in order to achieve a satisfactory fit between calculated and observed anomalies. Figure 7 shows that our best-fit model for the observed gravity anomaly in the Petrel Sub-basin is achieved simply by thinning the crust. However, it is necessary to assume a greater density at depth in the centre of the basin to account for the observed positive anomaly. To achieve this, the vertical densities were increased with depth and lateral density variations were included. No additional features were required, in contrast to the Willcox (1996)model which required high density intrusive bodies to have been emplaced. The higher densities in our model are achieved via in situ low-grade metamorphism. Density values calculated from wide-angle velocity models are used in the sedimentary succession at depths of <10 km. At depths >10 km, the density gradient is gradually increased to that of the surrounding crust. Assuming a geothermal gradient of ~30/km, at depths greater than 1520 km metamorphic PT paths predict that the basal sedimentary rocks will be at lower greenschist facies and will have acquired the petrological characteristics of basement. We propose that the gravity anomaly in the central Petrel Sub-basin is analogous to the signature observed on

Figure 4 Interpreted seismic section along AGSO Line 100/01 (see Figure 1 for line location). Note structural asymmetry and great thickness of sedimentary section contained in the Petrel Sub-basin. Large normal faults which bound half-grabens on SW basin margin show clear evidence of syn-rift growth across the basin-margin fault. Large displacement faults are not as clear on opposing NE margin, although some faults are observed in the basement. These faults are confined to the pre-rift sequence and do not offset overlying syn-rift sequence. We interpreted 19 seismic horizons between 369 and 65 Ma using our well database. Each horizon defines a correlatable chronostratigraphic boundary. Deepest horizon at 369 Ma (red horizon) defines unconformable boundary between the base of syn-rift Devonian sedimentary rocks and bona fide basement. Note sedimentary layer disruption caused by salt diapirism in centre of basin beneath Bougainville 1 well.

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Figure 5 Selected seismic-reflection data showing evidence for the timing of normal-fault activity in the Petrel Sub-basin (see Figure 3 for stratigraphic colour scheme). (a) Southwestern end of AGSO Line 1. Note main period of differential growth across fault between 369 Ma (cerise horizon) and 314 Ma (beige horizon). Minor differential growth is also evident at higher stratigraphic levels. (b). Northeastern end of AGSO Line 4. Note differential growth between 290 Ma (mauve horizon) and 270 Ma (turquoise horizon). There is evidence for minor growth as late as 245 Ma (lime green horizon). This unit is usually regarded as marking the end of rifting in the Petrel Sub-basin.

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Figure 6 Interpreted fault pattern at basement level in Petrel Sub-basin. The basin is structurally asymmetric and V-shaped in plan view. Parallel to SW basin margin, there are NWSE-trending normal faults with total displacements up to 5 km. Faults are also present on NE basin margin although their dip displacements are far smaller than those observed on opposing SW margin. Intersection zone between SW and NE conjugate margins preserves a complicated pattern of cross-cutting fault relationships. Salt diapirs are also shown.

isostatically balanced continental margins. A free-air gravity anomaly or edge effect is associated with rifted continental margins [Walcott 1972; Rabinowitz 1982; Watts & Marr 1995]. This distinctive paired signature represents the gravity effect of the thinning of crust over a short distance at a continental margin. The small distance between the southwest and northeast opposing basin margins in the Petrel Sub-basin means that the distal positive component of both edge effects constructively interfere to a degree. As the distance between margins increases further north in the basin, the gravity anomaly separates out, resulting in bifurcation. The magnitude of a rifted continental margin anomaly is similar to the magnitude of the central anomaly observed in the Petrel Sub-basin, i.e. ~50 mgal. This relatively low amplitude signature is characteristic of weak rifted margins and implies that this basin is locally compensated and not supported regionally by the strength of the lithosphere (Watts & Marr 1995). This observation supports the primary assumption of the subsidence modelling method used for this study (i.e. local isostatic equilibrium).

Our model is the simplest geological explanation of the observed gravity anomaly in the Petrel Sub-basin. Due to the non-uniqueness of gravity, a range of alternative models will fit the observed anomalies equally well. Our simple model suggests that only the crust has thinned and that modest vertical and lateral density changes can account for the central gravity anomaly.

SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS
The modelling technique used to quantify the amounts and rates of extension relies upon inverting the subsidence record. The subsidence of a sedimentary basin consists of two components: (i) initial fault-controlled subsidence, which depends upon the rate at which crust and lithospheric mantle is thinned; and (ii) a slower phase of thermal subsidence, which decays exponentially with time as a result of cooling. McKenzie [1978] proposed a mechanism for this observed plate subsidence by invoking instantaneous lithospheric extension, which assumes

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Figure 7 Best-fit gravity model across AGSO Lines 100/01 and 100/03 in the Petrel Sub-basin. Basin structure is defined using depthconverted seismic data and the densities are constrained using velocities from wide-angle seismic data. An in situ metamorphism gradient is applied to sedimentary layers deeper than 10 km so that their densities increase gradually to that of basement. Note blocks of high density (3 t m3) which occur on southwest side of each model. These blocks coincide with very strong reflections and could be Cambrian basaltic flows.

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that the subsiding basin remains in local isostatic equilibrium throughout its development. The procedure of backstripping was developed to remove the effect of sediment loading in order to isolate tectonic subsidence, allowing subsidence histories to be modelled (Steckler & Watts 1978; Sclater & Christie 1980; Bond & Kominz 1984). This backstripping method has become a standard technique since it allows direct comparison between the subsidence histories of any extensional sedimentary basin irrespective of the sedimentary fill. An inverse model developed by White (1993) was used in this study to automatically backstrip stratigraphic columns and calculate tectonic subsidence. Lithospheric stretching assumes that the lithosphere deforms by pure shear. Within the cold upper crust, stretching is manifest by brittle failure. The lower crust and lithospheric mantle are assumed to deform by plastic creep. When the lithosphere is thinned by some factor , asthenosphere passively upwells in order to maintain isostatic equilibrium. The thermal perturbation caused by this upwelling steepens the geothermal gradient. is defined as the ratio of the original crustal thickness to the thickness after extension. Extension occurs instantaneously and uniformly at time t = 0 at all depths within the crust and mantle lithosphere. Initial syn-rift subsidence, Si, will occur provided the starting crustal thickness, tc,, is <18 km. The crust is permanently thinned but the lithosphere is restored to its original equilibrium thickness after several lithospheric time constants. Equilibrium is achieved by heat conduction away from the thermal anomaly since the lithosphere is defined by an isothermal boundary. The cooling and resultant increased density of the hotter asthenosphere produces thermal subsidence, St, as the temperature perturbation decays. For rift periods of less than ~20 million years, the instantaneous-stretching model adequately describes the subsidence pattern. For basins which have stretched over longer periods, a finite-duration model is a better description since the effect of lithospheric cooling during stretching becomes sufficiently pronounced to change the proportions of syn-rift and thermal subsidence (Jarvis & McKenzie 1980). Alternative models of lithospheric extension, for example depth-dependent extension, are not required to fit the pattern of subsidence in the Petrel Sub-basin. Some studies of this basin proposed that extension is depth-dependent with a greater amount of extension occurring in the lower crust and lithospheric mantle compared to the upper crust (Colwell & Kennard 1996; Baxter 1998). However, there is no evidence for the expected steers head geometry. If lithospheric mantle extension occurs over a greater area than the crustal extension, a steers head geometry should develop whereby post-rift sediments extend beyond the area of the initial subsidence (White & McKenzie 1988). An overstepping onlap of stratigraphy onto basement should be observed. For uniform coaxial extension, no such onlap should occur. The interpreted seismic data in the Petrel Sub-basin suggests that the basal syn-rift sequence is the most laterally extensive and that a receding pattern of basinward backstepping onto each previous layer has developed during the post-rift succession. The geometry of post-rift sedi-

mentary sequence at the basin margins suggests that extension is uniform and coaxial in the Petrel Sub-basin. Furthermore, the distribution of post-rift is reasonably symmetrical. No evidence of an asymmetrical distribution of post-rift is observed to support a simple shear detachment method of extension. It is now generally accepted that asymmetry within the brittle upper crust does not necessarily imply that the crust and lithosphere have an overall asymmetry.

MODELLING STRAIN-RATE VARIATION

Both instantaneous and finite-duration stretching models assume that strain rate is constant during rifting. Thus the syn-rift subsidence profile is approximately linear. However, subsidence data worldwide show that syn-rift subsidence is more variable than predicted by a constant strain-rate model. These observed syn-rift subsidence variations occur over periods of 520 million years. Such variations are not easily explained by uncertainties in decompaction and palaeobathymetry or by uncertainties in the geological timescale (Newman & White 1999). It is also difficult to invoke eustatic sea-level change since syn-rift subsidence patterns are not constant over areas larger than 104 km2. We propose that the observed syn-rift subsidence variation is a result of variable strain rate during stretching (White 1993, 1994). The strain-rate history is best determined when the complete sedimentary succession is sampled down to basement. Wells commonly sample basement highs where sedimentary sequences are condensed. Although these highs often record the rifting history only minimal estimates of extension and strain rate can be extracted. However, synthetic wells can be used to sample the deepest parts of the basin and will record more representative values of strain rate. In this study, we have used synthetic wells derived from interpreted seismic data to determine the strain-rate history for areas in the basin where basement is deeper than 5 km. The combined use of actual and synthetic well data has advantages over using actual wells alone. Seismic coverage is typically denser than well coverage and so we can sample a larger percentage of the deep basin and avoid being restricted to areas of shallow basement. Sedimentary basins record vertical motion as a function of time, therefore the temporal variation in strain rate can be determined from the basins subsidence history. An inverse model to extract the variation in strain rate with time from subsidence data has been developed by White (1993). This method requires no prior information about either the duration of rifting or the total strain. Error analysis shows that uncertainties in decompaction, palaeobathymetry and chronostratigraphy do not significantly change the recovered strain rate histories. Our method is robust in the presence of noise because a large amount of smoothing is applied. Although the technique is onedimensional, when applied on a regional scale it provides valuable information about the spatial and temporal variation in strain rate throughout the basin. During extension, the vertical strain rate at the base of the lithosphere is assumed to be equal to the horizontal

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strain rate (Jarvis & McKenzie 1980). For variable strain rate during extension, the relationship between strain rate and is given by: = exp G(t)dt
0

(1)

where G(t) is the vertical strain rate. The relationship between G(t) and subsidence, S(t), is given by; S(t) = A(1 1/ ) BQ(t) where A = tc (2)

Pm Pc Pa Pw Pm

(3)

B= and

(Pa Pw)

(4)

Q(t) = [T(z,t) Tz, )]dz

0

(5)

T(z,t) is the temperature of the lithosphere as a function of depth and time and T(z,) is the equilibrium temperature structure of the lithosphere. The symbols and values for other parameters are given in White (1993). Q(t) is a measure of the difference between the perturbed and equilibrium temperature structure and is necessarily a function of G(t). A and B are crustal thinning and lithospheric mantle thinning factors, respectively and for the purposes of this paper are set to be constant (White 1993). The forward problem determines S(t) from G(t) and, as White (1993) showed, is a straightforward calculation. Here we are interested in solving the more difficult inverse problem. For discrete and noisy data, the inverse problem is best solved by calculating a large number of forward models, varying only G(t) each time until the difference between the theoretical subsidence curve and the data is minimised. G(t) is first parameterised by using M discrete values, Gk, at time intervals t, where t is normally 510 million years. G(t) can then be obtained by interpolation between each time step. It is necessary to impose smoothing on G(t) in order to stabilise inversion. Since the problem is non-linear and since all values of G should be greater than 0, a trial function, H, is minimised by systematically varying each value of Gk, using one of many search algorithms. H is given by:

Dividing the difference between them by i, the standard deviation, causes each term in the summation to have unit variance. The second and third terms cause G(t) to be smooth and the fourth term tends to smoothly as any Gk approaches 0. All of the results discussed below were obtained with W1=0.5, W2=0.5, and W3=0.050.5. H is an ad hoc function and it is very important to determine how results change with different values of the weighting coefficients. Varying the values of W1 and W2 by several orders of magnitude has a negligible effect but if they are set to zero, very rough solutions are sometimes obtained. W3 must be greater than zero at the start of the inversion procedure but can subsequently be decreased to ensure that strain rates are allowed to approach zero, for example, in any post-rift periods. The advantage of inverse modelling is that no assumptions regarding the timing, duration or magnitudes of rift events are required. However, once the rift periods have been determined they must be confirmed by independent geological information about the growth of normal faults and crustal thinning. An important advantage in using an inverse approach is that observational errors (e.g. compaction, palaeobathymetry, chronostratigraphy) can be mapped into strain-rate errors. Although we do not discuss error analysis in this paper, previous work has demonstrated that strain rates can be determined to within at least one-half of an order of magnitude [White 1993]. Synthetic well data were used extensively in this study to determine the spatial and temporal variation in strain rate in the Petrel Sub-basin. Errors associated with synthetic well data are not significantly greater than errors inherent in actual well data. The effects of both random errors (e.g. lithology variability) and systematic errors (e.g. dating variability) are discussed in more detail by White (1993, 1994). Tectonic subsidence is several orders of magnitude greater than anomalous subsidence triggered by halokinesis and so this problem can be eliminated as a possible cause of subsidence excursions.

RESULTS OF SUBSIDENCE MODELLING

The results from the Petrel Sub-basin display a greater range in subsidence and strain rate compared to the global average of Newman and White (1999), which highlights the importance of including deep synthetic data to analyse the full variation in these parameters in a basin. The number, timing and duration of periods of tectonic activity can also be determined. Several individual rift events are recognised which correlate with observations of faulting on independent structural data. The method used here to determine the development and variation in subsidence and strain rate of the Petrel Sub-basin is generic and can therefore be applied to and compared with any sedimentary basin worldwide.

(6) and are the observed and calculated subsiwhere dences used for inversion; N is the number of observations of subsidence and W1, W2, and W3 are weighting coefficients; Gk are estimates of the second derivative of G generated by cubic spline interpolation. The first term on the right-hand side of the above equation is zero when calculated and observed values of Si agree for all of the subsidence data. Soi Sci

Subsidence curves
Figure 8a shows the total tectonic subsidence profiles from three real wells in the Petrel Sub-basin: Cambridge 1, Barnett 2 and Turtle 1 (see Figure 1 for locations). Wells in the Petrel-Sub-basin provide only limited temporal coverage of the basins rifting history since only a few onshore wells sample the entire sedimentary sequence to basement, and none penetrate the deepest parts of the basin. The

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three wells shown here sample the thickest succession and so although they do not sample basement, they represent an almost complete record of the basins subsidence. However, since they only penetrate to a relatively shallow depth (~2 km) compared to the total depth of the basin (~25 km), the total amount of tectonic subsidence calculated in each of these wells is small (less than 1.5 km). Three distinctive periods of increased subsidence can be seen for all three wells. The first is from 369 to 340 Ma, the second gradient change occurs between 340 and 300 Ma, and the third is from 300 to 285 Ma. Each of these gradient changes is interpreted as a rift event. Between each steep gradient change, subsidence curves flatten, reflecting an interval of thermal subsidence. It is difficult identify thermal relaxation after the second gradient change since the next rifting period occurs almost immediately afterwards. After the final rift event, the subsidence curve gradually flattens out completely as a consequence of complete thermal subsidence during which time no further rift events are recorded. The use of synthetic data removes the sampling bias towards shallow areas of sedimentary basins and provides a more representative picture of the total tectonic subsidence and extension within a basin. A range of total tectonic subsidence values is obtained when the deeper parts of the basin are sampled. Figure 8b shows the total tectonic subsidence profiles for three synthetic wells in the Petrel Sub-basin (see Figure 1 for locations). These synthetic wells reflect the amount of subsidence calculated from the shallow, intermediate and deep parts of the basin. The most noticeable difference between the two sets of subsidence curves is the amount of total tectonic subsidence recorded. The maximum recorded by the actual wells in the shallow part of the basin was less than 1.5 km but the deepest synthetic wells record up to 7 km. Three marked gradient changes are evident on the synthetic well data and correspond to the same three changes seen on the real well profiles. A fourth gradient change is evident in the deep well that lies further north. Later periods of increased subsidence are recognised in all actual and synthetic wells that lie in the north of the basin. This trend indicates a northward progression in the timing of rifting from early rifting in the Petrel Sub-basin (pre-245 Ma) to later rifting in the Bonaparte Basin and North West Shelf.

in the Petrel Sub-basin is expected since crustal thinning is significant ( ~6). For an initial crustal thickness of 35 km and a cumulative of 6, the total tectonic subsidence at the time of lithospheric re-equilibration is greater than 8 km as predicted by the McKenzie (1978) stretching model. The maximum tectonic subsidence in the Petrel Sub-basin is ~8.2 km. This consistency between observation and theory suggests that it is possible that nothing more than lithospheric extension is required in the Petrel Sub-basin.

Total extension
Figure 9b shows the spatial variation in cumulative calculated from the total tectonic subsidence data. These values are broadly consistent with the amount of crustal stretching, which is a product of all identified rifting periods. Note that total extension is broadly symmetrical. The smoothness of the distribution is a function of two factors. First, sample spacing is large and therefore subtle changes in crustal thickness due to structural heterogeneities are not resolved. Second, is a measure of the total amount of crustal stretching for the whole crust. Thus the faulted profile of the brittle upper crust is thought to become smoother with depth as a consequence of the transition to plastic creep. The observed symmetry contrasts with the suggestion of OBrien et al. (1993) that structural asymmetry of the opposing southwest and northeast margins of the Petrel Sub-basin, termed the Upper Plate and Lower Plate Rift Margins, should be reflected by a spatial variation in subsidence and extension. OBrien et al. (1993) also proposed that the interpreted basement transfer zones would compartmentalise the pattern of subsidence and extension. However, the results of our study show that the amount of total tectonic subsidence and extension are similar on both margins and that structurally distinctive Upper Plate and Lower Plate Rift Margins cannot be recognised. This lack of differentiation highlights the fact that fault patterns do not necessarily reflect the geometry of lithospheric extension. Extension involves the whole lithosphere, but faulting is simply the mechanical response of brittle rocks to the process of lithospheric extension. Therefore, the Lower Plate and Upper Plate Rift Margins, which are classified exclusively by the fault style, do not indicate that extension is greater for the Lower Plate and Upper Plate Rift Margins. The amount of extension required to produce the total tectonic subsidence is corroborated with the amount estimated from: (i) faulting on seismic reflection data (Figure 5); and (ii) crustal thickness from gravity modelling (Figure 7). For AGSO Line 100/01, the extension estimated from visible faulting is = 1.9, which represents approximately 85% of the maximum predicted from tectonic subsidence analyses along this line ( = 2.2). We note that the amount of normal faulting on seismic-reflection profiles usually underestimates the total amount of extension, probably because of imaging problems. Along AGSO Line 100/03, preliminary wide-angle data available from Geoscience Australia (Colwell & Kennard 1996) suggest that crustal thickness is a minimum of 10 km, which indicates that the crust has stretched by a factor of ~3.5. This estimate is not dissimilar to the estimate of 4.5 calculated from tectonic subsidence. In general therefore the three different measures of are in broad agreement.

Total tectonic subsidence

Figure 9a shows the spatial distribution of total tectonic subsidence for the Petrel Sub-basin mapped using 115 synthetic well points along the AGSO deep seismic grid. The area south of AGSO Line 100/03 is the most tightly constrained by data and these results are the best resolved. The amount of total tectonic subsidence on the opposing southwest and northeast margins is equal and so there is no significant difference between the total amount of tectonic subsidence attained by the faulted margin and the unfaulted margin. OBrien et al. (1993) suggested that the difference in margin fault styles should be reflected by a difference in the amount of total tectonic subsidence. However, the results from this study show that crustal fault geometry is not necessarily indicative of the crustal and, by inference, lithospheric geometry. The large amount of total tectonic subsidence observed

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Figure 8 (a) Total tectonic subsidence curves from three real wells in Petrel Sub-basin, Cambridge 1, Barnett 2 and Turtle 1 (see Figure 1 for location). Three distinct periods of accelerated subsidence are recorded by all three wells: first from 369 to 340 Ma; second from 340 to 300 Ma; and third from 300 to 285 Ma. These accelerated subsidence periods represent rift periods. After ca 250 Ma, the steep gradient flattens out. Grey vertical bars indicate periods of normal fault activity (Figure 5). (b) Total tectonic subsidence curves from three synthetic wells in Petrel Sub-basin located at shallow, intermediate and deep basement depth (see Figure 1 for location). Three steep gradient changes are also evident on these data at the same times as recorded by actual wells. Intermediate and deep synthetic wells also record later period of accelerated subsidence (at ca 245 Ma), which is only seen in northern parts of basin. Grey vertical bars indicate periods of normal fault activity (Figure 5).

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STRAIN-RATE VARIATION
There are two reasons for extracting information about strain-rate variation from subsidence data. First, the temporal variation of strain rate provides useful information about the kinematic evolution of basins (i.e. the number, duration and intensity of rift periods). Second, the magni-

tude of strain rate can help to constrain the dynamical evolution of basins and margins (Newman & White 1999).

Temporal variation in strain rate

At least three major rift events are identified within Petrel Sub-basin. These periods of elevated strain rate all coincide

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9a

Figure 9 (a) Total tectonic subsidence for Petrel Sub-basin. Maximum tectonic basement subsidence is ~8 km, significantly greater than global average maximum (~2.5 km). Total amount of tectonic subsidence is equal on conjugate SW and NE margins, suggesting that crustal fault geometry is not indicative of total lithospheric extension. (b) Total cumulative extension for Petrel Sub-basin. Maximum cumulative is significantly greater than average maximum for global sedimentary basins ( ~2). This result shows that synthetic wells, which sample deeper parts of basin, record greater values of extension. Amount of extension is greatest in the north and is equal on opposing SW and NE margins.

with observable gradient changes in the subsidence data that are corroborated by observable growth across faults on seismic data (Figure 4). Figure 10 shows the temporal strain rate variation for the Petrel Sub-basin well database. We observe at least three basin-wide episodes of high strain rate which we have interpreted as rift events. The duration of these rift episodes is between 30 and 40 million years with three peaks in strain rate at 360, 330 and 290Ma. A fourth rift period occurs between 285 and 245Ma but this event is only seen at the northern end of the basin. The cumulative period over which rifting occurred in main part of the basin begins at 369Ma and terminates at 245Ma giving a total of 124 million years. The observed temporal scatter is due to slight differences in the dating of the geological horizons interpreted in each well. These well data accurately define the timing and duration of rift events, but are heavily skewed towards shallow, slightly extended regions. The maximum magnitude of strain rate recorded in actual wells is ~20 Gy1 (corresponding to 1015.5 s1) whereas the maximum strain rate recorded in the synthetic well database is far higher, up to 50 Gy1 (corresponding to 1015 s1). These results show that temporal variations in strain-rate history can be ade-

quately defined by wells located in shallower parts of the basin. However, only the inclusion of deep synthetic data allows the true range of strain-rate values to be determined.

Spatial variation of strain rate

The spatial variation in strain rate for the Petrel Sub-basin is determined using exclusively synthetic data due to the limited sample size of real wells that penetrate to basement. The relative maximum strain rate is recorded by distal wells indicating that extension was greatest in the northern Petrel Sub-basin. A rift period is assumed when the log strain rate per second exceeds a minimum value of 1017. This value is consistent with the minimum used by White (1993) to define the onset of a rift period. Perturbations below this value are not considered to represent rift events. The strain rate values here range from a minimum at ~ 1017 s1 to a maximum at ~ 1015 s1. Figure 11 shows the spatial variation in strain rate during the first rift episode in the Petrel-Sub-basin. This initial period of high strain rate in the basin occurs between 369 and 340 Ma with a peak strain rate at 360 Ma. Note espe-

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9b

cially that strain rate is uniformly high and evenly distributed across the entire basin. The basin margins are well defined by a steep gradient, but there is no differentiation in the strain rate between the opposing faulted southwest and unfaulted northeast margins. This pattern suggests that the asymmetrical structure of the brittle crust is not reflected at the lithospheric scale. The extent and shape of the Petrel Sub-basin is well defined as a northwestsoutheast-trending depocentre. A zone of high strain rate extends southwards and probably continues into the onshore part of the basin. After 245 Ma, strain rates effectively drop to zero throughout most of the basin (Figure 10). The locus of strain rate has moved to north where rifting continued in the Bonaparte Basin and on the North West Shelf. The pattern of deposition through time in the Petrel Sub-basin is consistent with a diminution in tectonism that is coincident with the establishment of a northern locus of tectonic activity and reflected by a northward migration in the primary depocentre. Strain-ate variation shows a northward temporal and spatial progression from the Petrel Subbasin to the northern Bonaparte Basin and finally to the North West Shelf. The timing of rift periods can be directly correlated with visible evidence of normal faulting on seismic data (Figures 4, 5). However, it is less easy to resolves three phases of extension from fault growth alone.

KINEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE
A large amount of subsidence data worldwide has been modelled to extract temporal strain-rate variation (Newman & White 1997). However, none of these data test the areas

of sedimentary basins where basement is deeper than about 5 km. Other workers have also noted that the lack of deeply penetrating wells means that data from highly extended portions of continental margins are lacking (Newman & White 1999). This sampling bias means that the global results are skewed towards small strains. Our study overcomes this bias by using synthetic wells derived from seismic data to sample the parts of the basin deeper than the 5 km limit of conventional wells. The strain rate boundary of 1015 s1 appears to represent the maximum strain rate recorded in sedimentary basins that have not evolved to passive margins (Figure 12) (Newman& White 1997). Even for values of ~6 for a single event, the corresponding strain rate as a function of time is not high enough to result in sea-floor spreading. Strain rates higher than 1015 s1 are required for extension to progress to infinity. The continuity of the Petrel Subbasin data within the global trend demonstrates that a much larger range of stretching factors is expected to lie within this trend than is currently assumed. These results suggest that highly extended deeply subsided sedimentary basins do not deviate from a global set of sedimentary basins. Instead, these basins lie in a continuum ranging from distal basins, where typically <2, to passive margins, which are adjacent to oceanic basins and where (Figure 12). Examples of highly extended, deeply subsided sedimentary basins with factors between these two limits include the Parentis Basin, offshore Spain (Le Pichon & Sibuet 1981), the Porcupine Basin, offshore Ireland (Tate et al. 1993), and the Jeanne dArc Basin, offshore eastern Canada (Keen et al. 1987). Empirical observations from these basins suggest that there are generic

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Figure 10 Timing, duration and magnitude of strain-rate variation for all actual wells. At least three rift periods occur pre-245 Ma. There is temporal scatter in timing of rifting between individual wells due to small differences in dating of horizons. Wells located in the south of the basin record three distinct early rift events: first from 369 to 340 Ma; second from 340 to 300 Ma; and third from 300 to 285 Ma. Wells further north in basin also record later rift events as late as 245 Ma. Post-245 Ma, no further rift episodes are recorded.

similarities between them such as: large depth to basement; V-shaped morphology; strike normal to ocean basins; evidence of formation by extension and large amounts of total extension where 2< <6. Since the Petrel Sub-basin within the larger Bonaparte Basin also shows characteristics common to these other deep extensional basins, we include it in this category. Finally, we test whether melt is expected to have been produced during rifting in the Petrel Sub-basin. We use Bowns (1993) model to calculate the amount of melt expected for finite-duration extension. This model calculates the relationship between and melt production for rift events of a specified duration. If continental lithosphere is stretched over a finite period of time, heat is lost from the upwelling asthenospheric mantle by conduction. As a result, the amount of melt generated is much less than if extension was instantaneous. The average duration of rift events in the Petrel Sub-basin is ~30 million years. Using a lithospheric thickness of 125 km and a normal asthenosphere potential temperature of 1280C (which equates to a real asthenosphere temperature of 1333C) if = 3 and if rt = 20 million years, no melt is generated. This result suggests that even for values approaching 6, significant decompression melting is not expected in the Petrel Subbasin unless asthenospheric temperatures were significantly elevated. For multiple rift events, synchronous cooling and strengthening of the lithosphere occurs during and between rifting. Therefore, large volumes of melt are

not predicted even for the high total values observed in the Petrel Sub-basin. Although gravity modelling across AGSO Line 100/01 shows that the observed positive gravity anomaly is also consistent with the presence of an igneous body at the base of the crust, we suggest that melt generation is unlikely to be the cause of this positive gravity anomaly. Nonetheless, the presence of deeply buried igneous bodies cannot be unequivocally discounted.

CONCLUSIONS
The Petrel Sub-basin preserves a sedimentary succession >25 km thick and is an excellent example of a deeply subsided, highly extended, sedimentary basin. The observed thickness of sediment accumulation is unusual but not unique. A significant number of similarly deep basins have been recognised on Earth. Characteristics common to all these basins appear to be: (i) proximity to, and trend normal to, ocean basins; (ii) V-shape morphology in planview; (iii) substantial depth to basement; (iv) evidence of extensional formation; and (v) large amounts of extension (i.e. ~6). Interpretation of faulting in the Petrel Sub-basin indicates that the basin formed predominantly by extension since syndepositional normal faults are the most common type observed. The basin is structurally asymmetrical with

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Figure 11 Spatial variation in strain rate for earliest period of rifting (369340 Ma). Note uniform strain rate across entire basin.

a highly faulted margin and a relatively unfaulted opposing margin, typical of many continental extensional settings. The timing of normal faulting is used to constrain periods of tectonic activity. A minimum of three episodes of extension are calculated from subsidence inversion modelling, broadly corroborating fault activity. These rift periods vary in time and space: the Petrel Sub-basin records early rift events (pre-245 Ma) and the northern Bonaparte Basin records later events. The large amount of total tectonic subsidence in the Petrel Sub-basin is not unexpected. For an initial crustal thickness of 35km and for ~6, we estimate that the total tectonic subsidence is ~8 km. This consistency between observation and theory suggests that it is possible that nothing more than lithospheric extension need be invoked to account for the subsidence pattern of the Petrel Sub-basin. Peak strain rates and values for the Petrel Sub-basin lie along the same trend as the current global dataset trend but extend the previous range. This continuity implies that the current global estimates for subsidence and strain-rate variation are not representative of the full range recorded in sedimentary basins worldwide and represent only minimal estimates of the amount of extension expected within sedimentary basins. We propose that a more representative estimate of the true global range in extension could be

obtained if deeper parts of sedimentary basins are sampled. The extrapolative technique employed in this study is not specific to deep sedimentary basins but can also be used to constrain the rifting histories of passive margins. The North West Shelf of Australia is an ideal starting point since a deep basin for comparison has now been analysed and a considerable amount of deep seismic data have been acquired by Geoscience Australia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was undertaken at the University of Sydney and at the Bullard Laboratories, University of Cambridge, as part of S. Baldwins PhD dissertation. Deep seismic reflection data were generously provided by Geoscience Australia. Open-file shallow seismic data were provided by numerous Australian exploration companies, principally BHP. Well data were supplied by Petroconsultants. S. Baldwin was funded by Shell Australia, the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust, an Overseas Research Scholarship, the Australian Vice-Chancellors Committee, and the British Federation of Women Graduates. We are especially grateful to B Spincer for his very generous help. University of Cambridge Earth Sciences Contribution Number 7174.

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Figure 12 Stretching factors plotted against peak strain rates. Small blue dots, global dataset discussed by Newman & White (1999); dark blue squares, data from Petrel Sub-basin region that clearly extends the range of the global trend.

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