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Definition of Terms

aspect ratio - the ratio of measurements (length to width, for example) of an element - must be within certain limits to ensure accuracy. axisymmetric - element type that can be used to model a solid of revolution. Can only be used when geometry, material, constraints, and loads are all axisymmetric. beam element - element whose geometry is defined by a curve, cross-section is input by user as a property brick element - type of solid element defined by the volume between six faces (cube-shaped). In H-codes, these elements are more accurate than tetrahedral elements. This is not the case for the P-method. composite shell - common element used to model sandwich composite materials. Material properties may be defined on multiple layers, with different orthotropic properties within each layer. Used often in the aerospace industry. contact region - entity in Pro/MECHANICA that allows for contact between two surfaces. Similar (but better) to gap elements in H-codes convergence - the act of honing in on the correct answer in a numerical simulation. In the H-version of the FEA method, this is a difficult, manual process of mesh refinement. In Pro/MECHANICA, it is automatic, achieved by the selective raising (adaptive P-method) of polynomial orders of the approximating equations. degree-of-freedom (dof) - name given to the freedom of movement for an object in any given direction. Any unconstrained object has six degrees-offreedom (translation in three directions and rotation in three directions). gap element - element used in H-codes that allows for contact between two bodies. H-method - original version of the finite-element method. Elements are flatedged and flat-faced, giving faceted representation of geometry. Accuracy is dependent upon mesh size and shape. design variables - in Pro/MECHANICA, variables that can be created to aid in testing multiple design variations. Can be on geometry (dimensions), material properties, etc element - one individual piece used in a finite-element analysis model. geometric nonlinearity - type of nonlinearity in structural analysis caused by large deformation. If the geometry changes enough during the course of the analysis, the stiffness will also change (even if the material property does not). Imagine a thin piece of sheet metal. It may stay within the linear range of the material property, but still show a large deflection. This results in nonlinearity because the stiffness (which is a function of both material and geometry), changes during the simulation. material nonlinearity - type of nonlinearity in structural analysis caused by nonlinear relationship between stress and strain for the material used. The material property (Youngs Modulus) changes over the course of the analysis, and cannot be input as one number. This can be caused by a material (such as a metal) being loaded above its yield stress value. It can also be caused by a material that has an inherently nonlinear stress-strain curve. This nonlinearity requires an iterative solution (performed in many steps). matrix algebra - a form of mathematics where sets of simultaneous equations are represented by rows and columns of numbers.

mesh - collection of finite-elements that together represent a geometric body for FEA mid-plane compression - the act of transforming a thin-walled solid CAD model into a surface model, located at the mid-plane of the solid, ready for shell meshing. nonlinear - term used to describe a function whose slope is not constant. The graph of such a function is not a straight line. In structural analysis, used to describe a problem where the relationship between load and deflection is not constant. This usually occurs when the stiffness (K) of the structure changes over the course of the simulation. The problem must usually be solved in an iterative fashion, updating the stiffness along the way. Nonlinearity is common in contact problems, problems with certain materials, and problems with large deflections P-method - polynomial-based version of the finite-element method. Elements are geometrically represented by polynomials (curved edges and faces) to more accurately represent the geometry. Accuracy is not dependent upon element size and shape, because convergence is achieved automatically. optimization - design study where software automatically finds the best design radiation - mode of heat transfer that occurs via electromagnetic waves (suns heat). sensitivity - design study where multiple solutions are performed for a problem, each using a variation on the model. Results are graphs that illustrate which design variables are important. shell element - element whose geometry is defined by a surface, thickness is a user-defined property, good for thin-walled structures solid element - element whose geometry is defined by a volume, good for bulky structures symmetry - term used to describe using part of the geometry of a model (1/2, 1/4, etc.) to simulate a situation that is equal on either side of an imaginary plane. Special boundary conditions are required along the symmetry planes. tetrahedral element - solid element defined by the volume between four faces (pyramid-shaped). In H-codes, these elements are generally not as accurate as brick elements. They are widely used, however, because automatic meshing schemes create tets more easily than bricks. two-dimensional element - element whose geometry is defined by a 2-d area. Represents a solid whose cross-section is unchanging in the direction into the page. Can be used for linearly extruded cross-section solids or axisymmetric solids of revolution. Only valid if geometry, loads, and boundary conditions are symmetric.

What Is Finite Element Analysis?


Finite element analysis is a numerical technique by which the solution of a set of differential equations may be performed. The finite element method is probably the most widely used form of computer-based engineering analysis. Most engineers, from all disciplines, will touch on the method at some point in their careers. The method can be used for analysis of a broad range of engineering problems.

Finite element methods are predominantly used to perform analysis of structural, thermal, and fluid flow situations. They are used mainly when hand calculations cannont provide accurate results. This is often the case when the geometry or process in question is very complex. Finite element analysis is broadly defined as a group of numerical methods for approximating the governing equations of any continuous system. Its most common applications are for solids, where structural and thermal processes are modeled. Mastery of finite element theory is necessary to write finite element programs, but it is not necessary to use such programs. It is necessary to understand the physical problem at hand, how to use the finite element program, and how to interpret the results. A basic understanding of the method is sufficient for this.

Background/History
Finite element analysis was first termed by R.W. Clough in a paper published in 1960, but the roots of the theory relates back to the Ritz method of numerical analysis, first introduced in 1909. Using the calculus of variations, R. Courant applied the Ritz method to obtain piecewise approximations of solutions for problem of equilibrium and vibrations in 1943. Further development of these ideas continued through the 1940s and 50s. By 1953, enginees began to use computers to solve structural problems. The paper by Turner, Clough, Martin, and Topp, published in 1956 is considered a major turning point in the development of FEA. The paper dealt with the stiffness and deflection of complex structures and contributed to increased interest in the method. In 1960 the term finite element was first used, and around this time numerical methods began to be widely used in the aerospace industry. In 1963, finite element analysis was recognized as a specific technique, and a serious academic discipline. This led to much greater research, leading to its application for heat transfer and fluid mechanics problems in addition to structural. By the early 1970s, finite element analysis had become established as a general numerical technique for the solution of any system of differential equations. The method was still only used at this time on a limited basis, however, because of the availability of powerful computers in industry. The use was primarily in the aerospace, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. With the advent of micro-computers (pcs and workstations) in the 1980s, however, the methods have become more widely used. It is now possible for engineers in virtually every industry to take advantage of this powerful tool.

FEA Math Equations

The solution techniques differ between programs, but much of the fundamental mathematics behind structural finite element analysis is common. The equations used are equilibrium, the sum of the forces is equal to the contributions of the stiffness and deflection, damping and velocity, and mass and acceleration.

{F} = [K] {X} + [D] {X} + [M] {X}


where F is the sum of the forces acting on the structure, M is the mass D is the damping K is the stiffness X is the displacement X and X are the first and second derivatives of displacement The quantities represented above are in matrix form; they represent rows and columns of numbers, each representing degrees of freedom of the structure. The second and third terms are only important in dynamic situations, and in a static situation, the equation reduces to

{F} = [K] {X}


which can be recognized as similar to the equation for deflection of a spring. In using FEA the forces are input by the user. K is the stiffness matrix, which is a function of the geometry of the member (defined by the shape of the finite-element mesh) and the material properties (user numerical input). The displacements are calculated using the relationship above. The stresses are calculated afterward, using the displacements.

Simple truss example


Lets look at a very simple example, using traditional finite-element analysis techniques to solve a problem without a computer. This example represents the method of solution used by common h-element FEA programs. Take the truss member, with a pinned end connection on the left hole, shown below.

If we limit our loads to a two-dimensional plane, we only have to consider tension and compression of the bar. Since each end of the bar may have a displacement, we create a finite element model of the part using two ends, or nodes. The body of the element can just be represented by a line (we will assign the cross-section properties).

Each node can move in two directions, x and y. Therefore, we will say that each node has two degrees of freedom (one in the x, and one in the y direction) The element has a total of four degrees of freedom. For the case of a planar truss element, the equation would be written as:

where kij is the stiffness influence coefficient (the force at the ith node due the jth displacement). Matrix algebra is used here, which is a subject in itself. Suffice it to say that the matrices shown here represent a set of four linear simultaneous equations. The number of equations is equal to the number of degrees of freedom in the problem. In this case, we are pinning the left end of the structure to ground. We know there will be no displacement at this node, so we can set u3 and u4 to zero. Because our load is in the x direction only, we can also set u2 to zero. Our matrix now reduces to:

We know that a bar in pure tension behaves with

It follows that the equations can be written as:

The stiffness matrix of the bar is given as:

Deriving the stiffness matrix was easy in this case, partly because the bar is oriented parallel to the x axis. If the bar is placed at an angle to the axis (like might occur in a three-bar truss problem), then the equations would involve trigonometry terms, sines and cosines, as well. Once the stiffness matrix has been calculated, the solution may be performed via matrix solution techniques. These techniques vary, and the solutions are beyond the scope of this course. After the displacements (uij) have been calculated, the stresses can be found. This would be easy in a truss element (pure normal stress), but is more complicated for more complex elements (such as beam, shell, solid).

The P-method
The polynomial-based version, or p-version of the finite element method is known as the p-method. The most well known treatment of the method in literature are 1981 and 1982 papers by Babuska, Szabo, and Katz. Conventional finite element programs rely on the h-method, where the field variables are approximated by low order polynomial functions(shape functions) - often linear, but also quadratic or cubic. The accuracy of the analysis is increased in this method by refining the mesh of elements. In the p-method, the field variables are represented by high-order polynomials. Convergence is obtained by increasing the order of the polynomials within each element. Mesh refinement is not required for convergence. The basic equations used to set up problems are the same as discussed in the previous sections. In the p-method, however, the primary variables (the variables we are solving

for) are not nodal displacements. They are the coefficients of high order polynomial basis functions (shape functions). In the p-method, four types of shape functions exist, linear nodal functions, edge functions, face functions, and volume functions. Conventional h-element formulations rely on the first type of shape function, the linear nodal functions. One way in which users can see the difference between the methods is the way in which loads and constraints are applied. In the p-method, the edge or face of an element can be constrained. This is not the case with the h-method. Another difference between the methods is in the shape of the elements. The h-method uses elements which have flat edges and faces. This results in a faceted representation of geometry. P-elements use high-order polynomial geometric functions to represent geometry. This results in accurate representation of geometry, even on contoured surfaces.

Different Element Types


FEA is a numerical technique with which engineers can break up a complicated geometry into a mesh of many simple shapes (finite-elements). No matter what the formulating equations on these simple shapes, we end up with a set of many simpler equations that define the system. Modern computers can handle solutions of large numbers of simultaneous equations, giving us the ability to perform analysis on complex objects. Because of the large numbers of equations required, most of the calculations are performed with the use of matrix algebra; a branch of mathematics where the equations are represented by matrices (rows and columns) of numbers. Much like one would predict the deflection of a spring using X=F/K, structural FEA computer programs calculate deflection using the users inputs of geometry, material properties, constraints and loads. The geometry is defined by the shape of the mesh of elements created. Material properties are entered by the user to represent the strength of the material used. Constraints represent the locations at which the structure is fixed, or prevented from movement. A finite element analysis is performed using a model which must be fully constrained, or prevented from what is known as free-body rotation or translation. This means that the structure is not allowed to spin or move off in a given direction. Consequently, any movement occurs as a result of deflection. The geometry and material, define the overall stiffness of the structure. The results of applied loads and the given boundary conditions on the structure are deflections at various points in each element. Stress results are computed in secondary calculations using the deflection results. Engineers can use the deflection results to evaluate product performance, and the stress results to check for failure or compliance to safety factors (by comparing to known stress values, like yield stress). Because different objects can have such drastically different geometric shapes, there are different ways to break an object into the finite-element mesh required for analysis.. It may not be appropriate, for example, to mesh a thin piece of sheet metal the same way

one might mesh a thick metal casting or an entire beam structure of a high-rise building. There are four major types of structural elements - beam, two-dimensional, shell, and solid. Generally an engineer chooses the element type which will require the minimum hardware resources and minimum time to build and solve the model.

Two-Dimensional (2-D) Elements

Two-dimensional elements provide a two-dimensional representation of the crosssection of an object. These elements can only be used in certain situations - specifically, when the geometry, loads, and boundary conditions are identical in any cross-section taken through the depth of the part. The geometry of the mesh used is representative of the cross-section through the part. Models created with these elements run lightening-fast, with almost no hardware requirements. Their use is limited, however, and more of the analysis performed today using high-end CAD/CAM/CAE is done using solid or shell elements. There are three main different formulations of two-dimensional elements. These are plane stress, plane strain, and axisymmetric. The plane stress formulation can be used for situations where the stress can be assumed to act within a two-dimensional plane, only. A good example would be a beam with rectangular cross-section in bending, or a thin plate in tension. Plane strain is a special case of plane stress, where any strain in the third direction (into the page) is prevented. This element type often is used for analysis of dams (which are prevented from strain by the canyon walls), or very long rails (which have an essentially infinite amount of material preventing stain along the rail). The last type is axisymmetric. This element type is used in situation of axial symmetry, where the geometry, loads, and constraints can be assumed to be uniform with rotation around a central axis. This formulation is very useful, and has many applications. A mundane example would be a simple drinking glass under fluid pressure. The element type is widely used for cylinder design - pressure vessels, boilers, etc.

Beam Elements

Beam elements are stick-figure representations of structural members that are much longer in one direction than the other two. The element is represented as a line or curve, and the user provides the cross-sectional information required to define the stiffness of the beam element.
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These elements are most useful in simulating beam structures such as bridges, buildings, scaffolds, etc.
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They are also often used in analysis with other element types to represent fasteners such as bolts and rivets.
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A beam element generally has two nodes, with six degrees of freedom on each node.
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A beam element can support tension/compression, shear, and torsion, so the ends may be restrained against translation and rotation in all possible directions.
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With beam elements in FEA programs, it is often necessary to define the beam orientation in some manner, usually by defining a vector. This orientation aids in the definition of beam properties.
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Shell Elements

Shell elements are surface representations of structures that are much thinner in one direction than the other two (thin-walled structures). The elements are geometrically defined by three or four sided surfaces, and are located in space at the mid-plane of the solid they are representing. The user specifies the thickness of the elements as an input to the software. These elements are used in modeling

all types of thin-walled structures, such as airplane and automotive bodies, pressure vessels, sheet metal, and many plastic molded parts. Shell elements have six active degrees of freedom per node, much like beam elements. Because of commonality in degrees of freedom, beam and shell elements are often joined together in mixed models. Shell elements are good for modeling structures that are thin. These elements are usually formulated under the assumptions governing thin plate theory. If a structure is too thick, the behavior of thin plates is no longer seen (shear stresses become large, etc.), and shell elements should not be used. This limit is usually seen at a thickness to width or length (whichever is smaller) of 1/10 and larger. Shell elements generally have a lower limit on this ratio as well. At thicknessto-width ratios between 1/100 and 1/1000, thin plates begin to behave like membranes, with no bending stiffness (like a string in tension, subjected to transverse load). Because of this shell elements cannot be used to model very thin, flexible structures such as fabric or thin membranes.

Solid Elements

Solid elements are volumetric, and best used for bulky structures. The elements can be tetrahedrals, wedges, or bricks (4, 5, or 6 sides respectively). Theoretically these elements could be used to model any structure, but it is not always practical. There are limits to the aspect ratios (length/width) of elements for accuracy reasons. Consequently, meshing a thin structure (like a sheet metal part) with solid elements often requires large numbers of elements. The elements can only be as thick as the part, and therefore they can only be so long and wide as well, resulting in large numbers. Large numbers of elements translate into large hardware requirements and run-times. This concept is key to understanding why we need the other types of elements (beam, shell, two-dim). Solid elements generally have only three degrees of freedom per node. This done to reduce model size. Only the three translational degrees of freedom are present, no rotations are active. This means that constraining rotational degrees of freedom will have no effect on the problem. To understand how this is possible, imagine a block welded to a wall. If we represent the block by a solid element with translational degrees of freedom,

only, we can see that the model may be constrained using only nodal translational constraints.

If we try the same thing with a shell element representing a thin solid welded to a wall, we must constrain rotations on the nodes along the wall edge.

Mesh Generation
The geometry in question in a finite-element analysis is represented by the collection of finite elements used, known as a mesh. Creating the mesh is often the most difficult part of finite element modeling. Originally, engineers would create the mesh using text files - rows and columns of numbers representing the positions of nodes and elements. With the capabilities of modern computers, specifically in the graphics area, software developers took advantage of CAD-like interfaces for finite element programs. Mesh generation could then be performed graphically, manipulating lines on a computer screen to form elements. Often, techniques such as extruding a shell mesh to create a solid mesh, were developed for creating complex geometric models. With the wide use of modern day solid modeling CAD programs, the geometry for use in finite element analysis already exists in some format. This geometry can be directly used for simulation, assuming the programs being used have the necessary interface capabilities. Once the geometry is in the system, most finite element programs allow for some type of automatic meshing. This is a process by which a finite element mesh can be created automatically. For beam elements, this is a matter of breaking up line entities into smaller line entities - not very difficult. For twodimensional elements, flat surfaces must be broken up into the elements

(usually having three or four sides). For shell elements, three dimensional surfaces must be divided into the shell elements. For solid elements, a volume must be sectioned into elements. Depending on the program, a combination of automatic meshing and hand meshing may sometimes be used. With automatic meshing, capabilities usually exist for the user to direct how the elements are to be placed. In h-codes, this is imperative, as the user must control the mesh to achieve accuracy. Even with p-element solvers, this capability is needed. Most automatic meshers create tetrahedral elements in solid volumes. Tetrahedral elements are less accurate than brick elements. Answers generated by the two meshes (with roughly the same mesh density) can be different. There is a popular a controversy over this subject. With the p-method, the same issue exists, but it shows itself differently. Because of the convergence method, however, the two element types will give the same answers - but the tetrahedral model would take longer.

Convergence/Accuracy
With the traditional structural analysis techniques (h-method), accuracy is dependent upon mesh size (with the exception of beam elements).

It is important with large models to refine the mesh locally in areas where needed, to perform efficient analysis.

It is often important with (h-element solvers) to perform extra runs for convergence check purposes - each time with a mesh of higher density

With the p-method, convergence is automatic. The solver raises the polynomial levels automatically to achieve accuracy.

Singularities (point loads, point constraints, sharp corners, etc.) can result in high stress values in any FEA program. Generally, the stress values at these locations can be ignored, and the stresses nearby can be used.

P-method solvers can have trouble converging when singularities are present. Techniques are usually provided to help the convergence scheme to ignore them.

Using CAD Models For FEA

Originally, finite element models were created using text files. The entire model definition had to be typed in by hand.

Today, FEA programs contain CAD-like interfaces, allowing for creation of geometry and elements in a graphical environment.

High-end MCAD systems provide excellent geometry - no need to recreate it for FEA

Some CAD programs (such as Pro/ENGINEER) allow for integrated finite element modeling, where loads, constraints, material properties, etc. can be applied directly to the CAD model.

Some MCAD programs, like Pro/ENGINEER, allow for the compression of thin-walled solids into mid-plane surfaces, ready for meshing with shell elements. Users need only to identify opposing surfaces of the solid.

Different Analysis Types


Modal

Modal analysis is used to find the natural frequencies a structure

The frequencies are calculated in increasing order of frequency magnitude. Users can define number of frequencies desired or a range of frequency magnitudes. Two things are important - mode shape and frequency. The actual values of displacement are not physically meaningful, only the shape of the deformation is important.

The information modal analysis gives is extremely valuable - it can help to make design decisions without further vibration analysis required.

Contact

In a contact analysis, multiple structural bodies interact

This interaction of the deformation of individual pieces results in stiffness changes The problem changes continuously throughout the solution - iteration required

Traditional methods involve use of gap elements. A gap element is an element that connects the node of one element to a node on another element. A gap element is like a spring, providing stiffness in the direction between the two nodes. The spring has a nonlinear stiffness, which is zero when the gap is not

closed, and some user-defined value when the gap is closed (the two nodes are touching). Newer codes use contact regions, which are not node-to-node connections. These are defined by choosing 3-D geometry, surfaces or volumes. This method of input is more user-friendly and much less tedious than using gap elements.

Prestress

In a prestress analysis, stress and strain exist before the addition of other

loads. The analysis requires multiple runs, where a full solution for the preload is performed first. The first solution is referenced when running the second solution.

Prestress modal allows for the calculation of natural frequencies in preloaded structures. A guitar string is a good example of natural frequency affected by the magnitude of preload - in this case tension in the guitar string. The frequency increases with increasing tension.

A good example of a problem requiring a prestress analysis is a flat plate under initial compression with an added transverse load. Common applications are pressure vessels under compression, bolted connections, prestressed concrete, etc.

Vibration
Popular FEA codes provide for many types of vibration analyses. These allow the examination of the dynamic behavior of structures. Some produce results that vary over time, and others give root-mean-square responses. Most dynamic analyses require a modal (natural frequency) analysis be performed on the model first. A few common types of vibration analysis are described below.

Dynamic Time - time history. Involves real-time solution using a time stepping scheme. Damping is often important in this type of analysis. Often the type of damping model provided controls the methods effectiveness for low vs. high frequency vibrations. This type of simulation is good for examining the short-term effects of dynamic loads.

Dynamic Frequency - involves a root-mean square solution for repeating harmonic loads. The response generated by the results can be interpreted as the steady-state response of the structure. This can be used to see the long-term effects of harmonic loads, such as machine vibrations.

Dynamic Random - random vibration is used when the time-varying forces are of statistical nature. This type of simulation is most commonly used for transportation-induced vibrations. The input involves the power spectral

density of the excitation. This input format is often referred to as G-squared per Hz distribution data. The solution produces the mean square response of the system.

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