the instrument used to measure earthquakes

"Seismometers are instruments that measure and record motions of the ground, including those of seismic waves generated by earthquakes, nuclear explosions, and other seismic sources. Records of seismic waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth, and locate and measure the size of these different sources. The word derives from the Greek , seisms, a shaking or quake, from the verb , se, to shake; and , mtron, measure. Seismograph is another Greek term from seisms and , grph, to draw. It is often used to mean seismometer, though it is more applicable to the older instruments in which the measuring and recording of ground motion were combined than to modern systems, in which these functions are separated. Both types provide a continuous record of ground motion; this distinguishes them from seismoscopes, which merely indicate that motion has occurred, perhaps with some simple measure of how large it was."

The Richter scale is a standard scale used to compare earthquakes. It is a logarithmic scale, meaning that the numbers on the scale measure factors of 10. So, for example, an earthquake that measures 4.0 on the Richter scale is 10 times larger than one that measures 3.0. On the Richter scale, anything below 2.0 is undetectable to a normal person and is called a microquake. Microquakes occur constantly. Moderate earthquakes measure less than 6.0 or so on the Richter scale. Earthquakes measuring more than 6.0 can cause significant damage. The biggest quake in the world since 1900 scored a 9.5 on the Richter scale. It rocked Chile on May 22, 1960.

Cyclones
Cyclones are measured almost entirely by satellites (although at times, especially near the United States, they are sampled directly by planes that fly into them), which look down at the earth and detect different types of radiation. They are also measured by networks of automated buoys in the ocean, where available. Most of these sensors simply measure the radiation they receive (called "passive sensors") while some "active" sensors send a beam of radiation at a particular wavelength down towards the earth and wait for a response. Passive sensors include infrared, visible, and microwave. Infrared generally measures heat, often of the cloud tops of the cyclone (which indicates how high the clouds are reaching and is an indication of its strength), while visible sensors are essentially like taking a picture from space, which serve a variety of uses. Microwave sensors can be used to take profiles of the atmosphere at some wavelengths, infer wind speed, heat, and several other variables. Note: Satellites are the platforms on which sensors are mounted. There are often many sensors mounted on each satellite that is launched. It is not the satellite itself that takes measurements but its sensors, which are often designed to do very different things. However, the satellite is not simply a static platform, but a complex machine that needs to be able to do a variety of things as well as communicate with scientists in order to keep it properly calibrated, troubleshoot problems, and otherwise keep it well maintained and in good working condition.

How are tsunamis measured or observed?

In the deep ocean, a tsunami has a small amplitude (less than 1 metre) but very long wavelength (hundreds of kilometres). This means that the slope, or steepness of the wave is very small, so it is practically undetectable to the human eye. However, there are ocean observing instruments that are able to detect tsunamis.

Tide Gauges
Tide gauges measure the height of the sea-surface and are primarily used for measuring tide levels. Most of the tide gauges operated by the Bureau of Meteorology's National Tidal Centre are SEAFRAME stations (Sea Level Fine Resolution Acoustic Measuring Equipment). These consist of an acoustic sensor connected to a vertical tube open at the lower end which is in the water. The acoustic sensor emits a sound pulse which travels from the top of the tube down to the water surface, and is then reflected back up the tube. The distance to the water level can then be calculated using the travel time of the pulse. This system filters out small-scale effects like wind-waves and has the capacity to measure sea-level changes within 1mm accuracy. The tide gauge at Cocos Island observed the tsunami on December 26th 2004 as it passed by the island, as shown in these observations made during December.

Satellites
Satellite altimeters measure the height of the ocean surface directly by the use of electro-magnetic pulses. These are sent down to the ocean surface from the satellite and the height of the ocean surface can be determined by knowing the speed of the pulse, the location of the satellite and measuring the time that the pulse takes to return to the satellite. One problem with this kind of satellite data is that it can be very sparse - some satellites only pass over a particular location about once a month, so you would be lucky to spot a tsunami since they travel so quickly. However, during the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 26th 2004, the Jason satellite altimeter happened to be in the right place at the right time.

The picture below shows the height of the sea surface (in blue) measured by the Jason satellite two hours after the initial earthquake hit the region southeast of Sumatra (shown in red) on December 26, 2004. The data were taken by a radar altimeter on board the satellite along a track traversing the Indian Ocean when the tsunami waves had just filled the entire Bay of Bengal. The data shown are the differences in sea surface height from previous observations made along the same track 20-30 days before the earthquake, showing the signals of the tsunami.

Picture courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech

The DART System

In 1995 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began developing the Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) system. An array of stations is currently deployed in the Pacific Ocean. These stations give detailed information about tsunamis while they are still far off shore. Each station consists of a sea-bed bottom pressure recorder which detects the passage of a tsunami. (The pressure of the water column is related to the height of the sea-surface) . The data is then transmitted to a surface buoy via sonar. The surface buoy then radios the information to the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) via satellite. The bottom pressure recorder lasts for two years while the surface buoy is replaced every year. The system has considerably improved the forecasting and warning of tsunamis in the Pacific.

How is a tornado measured?

The Fujita Scale is used to measure the intensity of a tornado.

The Fujita Scale is used to rate the intensity of a tornado by examining the damage caused by the tornado after it has passed over a man-made structure. It estimates the wind speeds and classifies tornadoes as very weak or very strong according to the destructive evidence.

How is a hurricane measured?

The Saffir-Simpson scale is a standard scale for rating the severity of hurricanes as a measure of the damage they cause. This scale is based on the observations of many North Atlantic hurricanes. This scale, being first developed in the late 1960s by Herbert Saffir, was made to quantity potential damage from hurricane winds. This scale however, was further expanded in the early 1970s by Robert Simpson. Presently, there are two forms of this scale: the SaffirSimpson Hurricane Scale and the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage Intensity Scale. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale rates hurricanes from category 1 through category 5 in order of increasing intensity. Each intensity category specifies the range of conditions based on four criteria: barometric (central) pressure, wind speed, storm surge, and damage potential. In category 1, some damage to trees and non-anchored homes, including mild flooding is expected to occur. In category 2, considerable damage to trees, causing them to be blown down and more extensive damage to poorly anchored houses are expected. In category 3, trees will be blown down, minor structural damage to buildings will occur and more severe flooding will take place. In category 4, there will be severe damage to roofing and houses, including damage to coast line structures due to severe flooding. Finally in stage 5, small buildings will be swept away as major structural damage occurs, which will result with the evacuation of all living near the coast due to disastrous flooding. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage Intensity Scale, in addition to the wind speed, outlines the damage potentially possible with an associated categorized hurricane. This scale is also used

to give an estimate of the potential property damage and flooding expected to occur along the coast as a result of a hurricane occurrence. Wind speed is the determining factor in the scale.

How are volcanoes measured?

Mapping helps to keep track of how fast flows are advancing toward areas where people live. scientists now map with portable GPS (Global Positioning System) receivers.

These devices receive the radio waves from global positioning system satellites to determine the position of the receiver on the Earth's surface. Portable receivers record positions to within 15 feet, which is well suited for lava-flow maps. To map flows, scientists walk around them as near their edges as possible, noting their characteristics and position. With GPS receivers, the position is recorded by pushing a button, and the data are recorded in the computerized memory of the device. Back in the office, scientists download the coordinates and connect the dots, so to speak. The result is an outline of the lava flow. It's easy to distinguish the margin of a new flow where it laps against substantially older flows. New flow is a shiny, silvery gray color, because none of its glass, which forms most of the rock, has altered chemically or physically. If the flow is less than a week old, scientists may feel substantial heat as we approach it or step onto it. Shimmering heat waves in the air above a recent lava flow may give it away, too. Changes in slope in a real volcano can be measured precisely by various electronic mechanical "tiltmeters" or field tilt surveying techniques, which, for example, can detect the change in slope of a kilometer-long board if raised by the thickness of a dime placed under one end. Similarly, minute changes in horizontal distances can be measured by an instrument that uses a laser beam; tiny changes in vertical distances can be measured by making a series of precise levelling surveys. Such changes can be easily detected to a precision of only a few parts per million. The frequency, location, and magnitude of earthquakes generated by magma movement can be easily and accurately determined by data obtained from a properly designed seismic network.