XCS 802 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND HUMAN VALUES UNIT I HUMAN VALUES

The Story of a Carpenter

An elderly carpenter was ready to retire. He told his employer-contractor of his plans to leave the house- building business and live a more leisurely life with his wife enjoying his extended family.

He would miss his paycheck, but he needed to retire. They could get by. The contractor was sorry to see his good worker go and asked if he could build just one more house as a personal favor.
The carpenter said yes, but in time it was easy to see that his heart was not in his work. He resorted to shoddy workmanship and used inferior materials. It was an unfortunate way to end his career.

When the carpenter finished his work and the builder came to inspect the house, the contractor handed over the house key to the carpenter. This is your house, he said, it is my parting gift to you.

What a shock! What a Shame! If only he had known he was building his own house, he would have done it all so differently. Now he had to live in the home he built none too well.

(Modified from LIVING WITH HONOUR by SHIV KHERA)

Do we find ourselves in similar situations as the carpenter?

Moving through our work hours fast paced, driven to get the job done, without much thought to moral values.

How do we regain our focus as individuals and organizations?

This is the challenge for the employee and the employer.

Ethics are fundamental standards of conduct by which we work as a professional.

VALUES
Values are individual in nature. Values are comprised of personal concepts of responsibility, entitlement and respect. Values are shaped by personal experience, may change over the span of a lifetime and may be influenced by lessons learned. Values may vary according to an individuals cultural, ethnic and/or faith-based background. Never change your core values.

In spite of all the change around you, decide upon what you will never change: your core values. Take your time to decide what they are but once you do, do not compromise on them for any reason.
Integrity is one such value.

MORAL
you responsible? You are an engineer at International Programmable Machines (IPM), which makes computers. You are visiting a manufacturing plant of one of IPMs suppliers, which sells parts to IPM and other companies. You notice that a non-IPM system is not properly grounded, and it could cause an electrical shock. What should you do? For what reasons? Software errors in the Therac-25 resulted in deaths In the early 1980s, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited made the Therac-25 cancer radiation treatment machine Between 1985 and 1987, radiation overdoses by the Therac-25 caused severe burns, which killed three patients and seriously injured three others Who was responsible? What are different kinds of personal responsibility? Causal Operators keyboard entries caused the overdoses Role Software engineers developed and tested the control program, but overlooked errors Legal The manufacturer was liable for damages Moral Unlike others, can be shared Engineers are morally responsible for safety Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public. Code of Ethics, National Society of Professional Engineers When you see unsafe objects or practices, you are professionally responsible to act even when you are not assigned that task

INTEGRITY
-Line CounsellingWhome, Where, When, What, How?Counselling SkillsCrisis ManagmentForms, Record KeepingEthicsReference Telehealth services in UKSumaritans, the best-known telephone service over 40 years oldThe first UK Directory of Helpline was lunches in 1996 with 800 national, reginal and local services to follow accepted helpline standards for good practice Telehealth activities may include:Using the telephone for crisis interventionConducting telephone sessions with patients who are not able to attend in-person sessions for a period of time.Providing clinical services entirely by telephone to an individual in a different geographical areaUsing email for in between in-person session contacts with clients or with no in-person contactProviding services to an individual in a different location utilizing interactive televideo communications technolog

Different InterventionsTraditional Interventions:Psychotherapy, Coching, Counselling, Telephone, VideoconferencingE-Therapy:Telethealth, Videoconferencing, Chat, EmailHelpline: Telephone,

WORK ETHIC
THE QUALITY OF OUR LIFE UNLESS YOU ARE VERY CLEAR ABOUT YOUR EXISTING THOUGHT PATTERNS AND THE NEED FOR INCREASING THE DESIRABLE POSITIVE THOUGHT PATTERNS YOU CANNOT IMPROVE YOUR POSITIVE ATTITUDE . WHERE ARE WE NOW ? 2. WHERE DO WE WANT TO GO ? 3. HOW WILL WE GET THERE? THE IMPORTANT QUESTION IS : WITH WHAT VALUES ? ARE NOT THESE QUESTIONS EQUALLY RELEVANT FOR THE INDIVIDUAL, INSTITUTION & THE NATION ? ETHICS ETHICS ARE MORAL BELIEFS AND RULES ABOUT RIGHT AND WRONG THAT INFLUENCES THE BEHAVIOUR, ATTITUDES AND PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE OF A GROUP OF PEOPLE ETHICS AND VALUES VALUES Values of a person or group are the moral principles & beliefs that they think are important in life & that they tend to live their lives by such values as guiding principles

SERVICE LEARNING
Cost Benefits exist only with a particular client or set of clients in a particular business setting . Therefore, if there is no specific client and business setting you cannot promote value 1 . Features are an objective characteristic of the product or service. Advantages indicate how the features might help sets of clients . 1 In that case you will be promoting features, advantages or just technology . Understanding Value - 1 Advantages Lead To Features Benefits Lead To Value is in the mind of a specific client Understanding Value - 1 Generic Value Benefits Advantages Features Value Understanding Value - 2 Perception of value is tied to emotion , and personal values eMotion -Value = eMotion -Benefits eMotion -Cost The outcomes, which are stated as benefits, are as much perception as measurable factual reality . Both facts and perception are reality. But interestingly, while facts belong to organisations, perceptions belong to individuals . The eMotion Value Proposition Model 1 explains: Why 'good' proposals stall Why high return (high ROI) proposals are blocked Why the 'best' proposal does not always win How personal distraction and effort mould perceptions of benefits How individual recognition and reward mould perceptions of value. 1 For full details of the eMotion VP Model

Innovation VP Model The model for creating business innovation The process begins with collaborative discussions about the business, by the business Business Analysis IT Analysis provides the opportunity for CIO leadership in business innovation Alignment must be monitored and maintained IT Analysis Innovation Business Analysis Act Plan Do Check Maintenance Cycle Alignment Pre-Alignment Generate VP VP Model - Business Analysis Collaboration Workshop, led by the Business Executives Facilitated by industry insights Insights into the structure of the industry, the strengths, weaknesses and threats of competitors, and the complex factors that drive the economics of individual companies. Two key questions to be discussed: What are the factors that drive the economics of the sector as a whole, and individual companies/competitors? How does the strategy, priorities, capabilities and performance of our organisation compare and relate to those factors? Output is Pre-Alignment Information Ideas and thoughts that are not in isolation from previous and current IT initiatives. There will be some sense of informal alignment, or lack of it .

CIVIC VIRTUE
To modern society, the notion of character development and virtuous living may seem antiquated and irrelevant. Consequently The establishment of virtues serves as axioms that guide our philosophy of life and defines what we value. The participants would work in small groups to ascertain this information and share their findings with the whole. progress and the progress of others. In order to surpass oneself, a self-development plan must be developed, with a specific time period, and conscious reflection and strategies for improvement (Findley, 2002).

RESPECT FOR OTHERS

BELONGING? I am part of a team I am valued I can make a contribution I am accountable I feel supported My skills and experience count How do we help our staff feel a sense of IDENTITY? I have something to offer I am part of something bigger than myself I am encouraged and supported to believe in I am valued for who I am We are going somewhere How do we help our staff feel a sense of PURPOSE? I have a goal There is a direction to my work I believe in the value of the purpose My effort achieves What is Values Driven Leadership? Purposeful Results Oriented Leadership Based on Valuing each Person for their Uniqueness Characteristics of Values Driven Leadership Communicate your values Characteristics of Values Driven Leadership Make the time to value your staff and yourself

Characteristics of Values Driven Leadership These characteristics are actions that come out of WHAT YOU VALUE Listening, Empathy, Commitment to Growth of People, Stewardship, Building Community

LIVING PEACEFULLY
-like rejection of any newknowledge that contradicts established and entrenched norms, beliefs, and paradigms The Solution? There are various ways to unpick the Semmelweis Reex.One of these is the Distinction Bias i.e. the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluatinthem simultaneously than when evaluating them separately The original breads Semmelweis Reex Our ofcial dealerships are like local dealerships. Upgraded. Human Dialogue reduces Semmelweis Reex Qualied technicians, quality parts, Nectar points, free roadside assistance and peace of mind In case you ever wondered why 1.5 million drivers a year choose ofcial DealershipsThis example presents drivers with a peer validated framework (group think) as distinction, by presenting a list that readers will then directly compare with their existing garage 11.8% 41.2% Qualied technicians, quality parts, Our ofcial dealerships Nectar points, free roadside are like local dealerships. Upgraded. assistance and peace of mind In case you ever wondered why 1.5 million drivers a year choose ofcial dealershipsIn Human Dialogue trials, we found panelists who would switch from a local garage to a main dealership, rose by 29.4%, when we addressed the Semmelweis Reex by activating the Distinction Bias There are literally thousandsof solution combinations,addressing almost 100biases that humans have. Theexamples shown are singular,just showing one reactionand one solution

CARING
Understanding the need, basic guidelines, content, process for Value EducationNeed for Value Education: Value Education enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and also indicate the direction of their fulfillment. . Understanding the harmony of I with the body: Sanyam and SwasthyaThe human body is a self- organized IThere are feelings in relationship - of one I with otherThese feelings can be recognized

SHARING
Human Resources Core Competencies in Support ofof Customer and Shareholder Value Creation An Illustrated Integrated Workflow Approach Employee interaction Recruiting, Engaging, Developing, Re etaining & Sustaining Your Workforce, and etaining & Sustaining Your Workforce Human Resources Core Competencies in Support ofof Customer and Shareholder Value Creation An Integrated Information, Technology, and Knowledge Managem ment Approach organization transition and disruption, our employees look first to leaders for guidance, p g p p y g motivation and focus. Steps to Producing Lasting Change &Transition, and Building a Learning Organization

HONESTY
that a person ought to be Values that one ought to adopt Ethics Formal study of morality (philosophy) Moral standards of particular group (engineering ethics, medical ethics, etc.) Moral theories: Kinds of moral reasons Consequentialist theories emphasize consequences of actions Assess good and bad consequences Both individual and others Both short- and long-term Act-utilitarianism Choose action with greatest net benefit over costs Rule-utilitarianism Choose rule with greatest net benefit Consequentialist theories have practical difficulties Assessing chance occurrences Measuring on common scale (e.g., cost of life) Distribution of benefits may seem unfair
should be a universal law Rawlss Theory of Justice Rules that rational persons would agree to follow, not knowing their actual positions in society Most individual liberty compatible with equal amount for others An important duty is treating people with respect Kants Categorical Imperative (alternate form) Treat people as ends,

COURAGE
- Concerned with feelings of confidence and fear Concept of a Brave man Boxer example The best soldier 06/07/09 NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK THREE COURAGE AND TEMPERANCE Temperance - a mean with regard to pleasures. Pleasures bodily and soul. Self Indulgence- reminds of objects of appetite. Conclusion - more concerned with touch than taste. 06/07/09 NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK THREE COURAGE AND TEMPERANCE

Appetite:- Common; acquired; peculiar belly-gods : fill their belly beyond what is right The Temperate Man:- The sort of man that the right rules prescribe 06/07/09 NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK THREE COURAGE AND TEMPERANCE . Self-indulgence :- A voluntary State than cowardice Rational Principle :- Refers to an obedient state Appetitive element :- Should harmonize with rational principle in a temperate man. 06/07/09 NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK THREE COURAGE AND TEMPERANCE Our evaluation of a person's actions depends to some extent on whether those actions are voluntary, involuntary, or nonvoluntary.

VALUE TIME
Ethic value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of determining what action or life is best to do or live It deals with right conduct and good life, in the sense that a highly, or at least relatively highly, valuable action may be regarded as ethically good, and an action of low, or at least relatively low, value may be regarded as "bad". Absolute value, on the other hand and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent of whether it is apprehended or not. In these cases, the sum of instrumental specifically and instrinsic value of an object may be regarded as the whole value of the object.

CO-OPERATION
ne person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests, regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict. Collaborating The intention is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view. Avoiding Where a person recognizes that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress it. Accommodating Where one party seeks to appease an opponent, that party may be willing to place the opponents interests above his or her own. Compromising Each party in conflict seeks to give up some thing, sharing occurs, resulting in a compromised outcome. Here no one is loser or winner but solution provides incomplete satisfaction of both parties concerns.

COMMITMENT
The Corporation shall provide the customers with all the information regardingtheir dues and provide reasonable time for payment of the same

.Each application shall be considered independently on merit, upon scrutiny of allthe information, documents required for verifying the title of the property The disclosure shall be done so as to ensure that the borrower is aware of all in cost parameters involved in processing and sanctioning of loan. .While interacting with customers, the Corporation may take all steps as may berequired to provide clear information either in English or Hindi or theappropriate local language regarding: o its various products and services

EMPATHY
Ethical theory, political culture and the behavioral sciences are currently witnessing an "empathy boom."
Generally this boom conceives of empathy as the ability to place oneself in another's shoes or as a form of perspectiveThe reigning picture of empathy in the academy and public culture today is that empathy is a widespread human capacity that enables people to overcome mutual lack of understanding.

empathy is perceived to be a desirable moral trait that should be cultivated in family and society.
Uniquely ethical empathy emerges on his account from a normative conflict between (i) the intensely private, perfectly partial imperative imposed upon the sufferer

SELF CONFIDENCE
Environmentalists will probably throw pies at you for your decisions, so it is best to prepare for a global assault through Public Relations.

or part-time combine paid work with voluntary meaningful work, do work that utilizes his skills, knowledge, values and experience.
Commitments made to deliver specific revenue amounts Commitments to mentor others Refocusing of efforts and priorities Commitments . A leadership framework needed to be developed for GWs top 300 leaders. These people should be able to bridge the revenue gap caused by expiration of patent the number one priority is to get the business rightStrong leadership, good people, good product flow, bringing value to patients throughout the world

CHARACTER
THE character is a combination of qualities features that distingise one person are group think another Distinguise feature attribute of an group or category

Moral ethics and stregenth

SPIRTUALITY
spirituality in the workplace as a starting point for consideration, with the recognition that each individual may have his/her own personal definitions:

spirituality in the workplace as a starting point for consideration, with the recognition that each individual may have his/her own personal definitions:

The innate human attribute in spirituality. All people bring this as an integral part of themselves to the workplace. Spirituality is a state or experience that can provide individuals with direction or meaning, or provide feelings of understanding, support, inner wholeness or connectedness. Connectedness can be to themselves, other people, nature, the universe, a god, or some other supernatural power.

Generally quiet time, time in nature, or other reflective activities or practices are required to access the vertical component of our spirituality. Examples of the vertical component of spirituality might be meditation rooms, time for shared reflection, silence before meetings, ecumenical prayer, and support for employees to take time off for spiritual development.

UNIT-II 2. ENGINEERING ETHICS Senses of 'Engineering Ethics

Ethics is an activity and area of inquiry. It is the activity of understanding moral values, resolving moral issues and the area of study resulting from that activity. When we speak of ethical problems, issues and controversies, we mean to distinguish them from non moral problems. Ethics is used to refer to the particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits that a person or group displays concerning moralities. Ethics and its grammatical variants can be used as synonyms for morally correct.

variety of moral issued

MICRO-ETHICS emphasizes typically everyday problems that can take on significant proportions in an engineers life or entire engineering office.

MACRO-ETHICS addresses societal problems that are often shunted aside and are not addressed until they unexpectedly resurface on a regional or national scale.

MORAL PROBLEMS IN ENGINEERING

(SOME EXAMPLES)

4.1. An inspector discovered faulty construction equipment and applied a violation tag, preventing its use. The supervisor, a construction manager viewed the case as a minor abrasion of the safety regulations and ordered the removal of the tag to speed up the project. When the inspector objected to this, he was threatened with disciplinary action.

4.2. An electric utility company applied for a permit to operate a nuclear power plant. The licensing agency was interested in knowing what emergency measures had been established for humans safety in case of reactor malfunctioning. The utility engineers described the alarm system and arrangements with local hospitals for treatment. They did not emphasize that this measures applied to plant personnel only and that they had no plans for the surrounding population. When enquired about their omission, they said it was not their responsibility.

4.3. A chemical plant dumped wastes in a landfill. Hazardous substances found their way into the underground water table. The plants engineers were aware of the situation but did not change the method of disposal because their competitors did it the same cheap way, and no law explicitly forbade the practice.

4.4. Electronics Company ABC geared up for production of its own version of a popular new item. The product was not yet ready for sale, but even so, pictures and impressive specifications appeared in advertisements. Prospective customers were led to believe that it was available off the shelf and were drawn away from competing lines.

Types of inquiry
1. NORMATIVE INQUIRY

These are about what ought to be and what is good. These questions identify and also justify the morally desirable norms or standards.

Some of the questions are: A. How far engineers are obligated to protect public safety in given situations?

B. When should engineers start whistle blowing on dangerous practices of their employers? C. D. E. Whose values are primary in taking a moral decision, employee, public or govt? Why are engineers obligated to protect public safety? When is govt justified in interfering on such issues and why?

2. CONCEPTUAL INQUIRY:

These questions should lead to clarifications on concepts, principles and issues in ethics. Examples are:

A) What is SAFETY and how is it related to RISK B) Protect the safety, health and welfare of public-What does this statement mean? C) What is a bribe? D) What is a profession and who are professionals? 3. FACTUAL (DESCRIPTIVE) INQUIRIES These are inquiries used to uncover information using scientific techniques. These inquiries get to information about business realities, history of engineering profession, procedures used in assessment of risks and engineers psychology.

Why study ENGINEERING ETHICS

ENGINEERING ETHICS is a means to increase the ability of concerned engineers, managers, citizens and others to responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological activities.

Moral dilemmas
There are three types of complexities.

 VAGUENESS: This complexity arises due to the fact that it is not clear to individuals as to which moral considerations or principles apply to their situation. CONFLICTING REASONS: Even when it is perfectly clear as to which moral principle is applicable to ones situation, there could develop a situation where in two or more clearly applicable moral principles come into conflict. DISAGREEMENT: Individuals and groups may disagree how to interpret, apply and balance moral reasons in particular situations. Steps in confronting MORAL DILEMMAS: i) ii) iii) Identify the relevant moral factors and reasons. Gather all available facts that are pertinent to the moral factors involved. Rank the moral considerations in the order of their importance as they apply to the situation. iv) Consider alternative course of action, tracing the full implications of each, as ways of solving dilemma. v) Talk with colleagues, seeking the suggestions and perspectives of the dilemma. vi) Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant moral factors and reasons in light of facts. All the above steps are distinct, even though they are inter-related and can often be taken jointly

Moral autonomy
This is viewed as the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concerns independently or by self-determination. Autonomous individuals think for themselves and do not assume that customs are always right. They seek to reason and live by general principles. Their motivation is to do what is morally reasonable for its own sake, maintaining integrity, self-respect, and respect for others.

One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty. I submit that an individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust and willingly accepts the penalty is in reality expressing the highest respect for the law. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. in Letter from a Birmingham Jail, 1963.

A person becomes morally autonomous by improving various practical skills listed below:

i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii)

viii)

Proficiency is recognizing moral problems and issues in engineering. Skill in comprehending, clarifying and critically assessing arguments on opposing sides of moral issues. The ability to form consistent and comprehensive viewpoints based upon consideration of relevant facts. Awareness of alternate responses to issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties Increased precision in the use of a common ethical language necessary to express and also defend ones views adequately. Appreciation of possibilities of using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and the need for tolerance of differences in perspective among orally reasonable people. A sense of importance of integrating ones professional life and personal convictions i.e. maintaining ones moral integrity.

Kohlberg's theory
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Pre-conventional Level Whatever benefits oneself or avoids punishment. This is the level of development of all young children. -Avoid punishment & Gain Reward Conventional Level Uncritical acceptance of ones family, group or society are accepted as final standard of morality. Most adults do not mature beyond this stage. -1.Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval & 2. Duty & Guilt Post-conventional Level Motivation to do what is morally reasonable for its own sake, rather than solely from ulterior motives, with also a desire to maintain their moral integrity, self-respect and the respect of other autonomous individuals. They are Morally autonomous people. -1. Agreed upon rights & 2. Personal moral standards

Gilligan's theory
Pre-conventional Level This is the same as Kohlbergs first level in that the person is preoccupied with self centered reasoning, caring for the needs and desires of self.

Conventional

Here the thinking is opposite in that, one is preoccupied with not hurting others and a willingness to sacrifice ones own interests in order to help or nurture others (or retain friendship).

Post-conventional Level Achieved through context-oriented reasoning, rather than by applying abstract rules ranked in a hierarchy of importance. Here the individual becomes able to strike a reasoned balance between caring about other people and pursuing ones own selfinterest while exercising ones rights.

consensus and controversy

CONTROVERSY: All individuals will not arrive at same verdict during their exercising their moral autonomy. Aristotle noted long ago that morality is not as precise and clear-cut as arithmetic. Aim of teaching engg ethics is not to get unanimous conformity of outlook by indoctrination, authoritarian and dogmatic teaching, hypnotism or any other technique but to improve promotion of tolerance in the exercise of moral autonomy.

CONSENSUS: The conductor of a music orchestra has authority over the musicians and his authority is respected by them by consensus as otherwise the music performance will suffer. Hence the authority and autonomy are compatible.

On the other hand, tension arises between the needs for autonomy and the need for concerns about authority. The difference between the two should be discussed openly to resolve the issue to the common good.

Models of Professional Roles

1. SAVIOR: The representative engineer is a savior who will redeem society from poverty, inefficiency, waste and the drudgery of manual labour. 2. GUARDIAN: Engineers know, the directions in which and pace at which, technology should develop. 3. BUREAUCRATIC SERVANT: The engineer as the loyal organization person uses special skills to solve problems. 4. SOCIAL SERVANT: Engineers, in co-operation with management, have the task of receiving societys directives and satisfying societys desires.

5. SOCIAL ENABLER AND CATALYST: Engineers play a vital role beyond mere compliance with orders. They help management and society understand their own needs and to make informed decisions. 6. GAME PLAYER: Engineers are neither servants nor masters of anyone. They play by the economic game rules that happen to be in effect at a given time. Theories about right action Everyone has inherent moral rights Everyone has rights that arise from EXISTING (i.e. right to Life, maximum individual Liberty, and human Dignity are Fundamental Rights). Other rights arise as a Consequence. Duties arise because people have rights, not vice versa. Any act that violates an individuals moral rights is ethically unacceptable. Rights ethics was highly individualistic. Rights are primarily entitlements that prevent other people from meddling in ones life. These are referred to as Liberty Rights or Negative Rights that place duties on other people not to interfere with ones life. e.g. Individuals do not have rights to life because others have duties not to kill them. Instead, possessing the right to life is the reason why others ought not to kill them.

Drawbacks

How do we prioritize the rights of different individuals? Rights ethics often promote the rights of individuals at the expense of large groups/society A.I.Meldens version of Rights Ethics

Human rights are intimately related to communities of people. This version is known as POSITIVE WELFARE RIGHTS and is defined as rights to community benefits for living a minimally decent human life.

Self-interest
Valuing oneself in morally appropriate ways. Integral to finding meaning in ones life and work A pre-requisite for pursuing other moral ideals and virtues. Self-respect is a moral concept of properly valuing oneself but self-esteem is a psychological concept of positive attitude towards oneself.

Self-respect takes two forms.

1. Recognition self-respect is properly valuing oneself because of ones inherent moral worth, the same worth that every other human being has.

2. Appraisal self-respect is properly valuing ourselves according to how well we meet moral standards and our personal ideals.

customs and religion

Ethics and Religion:

Moral issues and religious belief are related in several positive ways.

First, they are shaped over time from the central moral values of major world religions. Second, religious views often support moral responsibility by providing additional motivation for being moral. Third, sometimes religions set a higher moral standard than is conventional. Societies often benefit from a variety of religions that make prominent particular virtues, inspiring their members to pursue them beyond what is ordinarily seen as morally obligatory. Divine Command Ethic:

 This says that an act which is right is commanded by god and the one which is wrong is forbidden by God. The difficulty in this is to know precisely what Gods commands are and in knowing whether God exists. We can view that moral reasons are not reducible to religious matters, although religious belief may provide an added inspiration for responding to them.

Uses Of Ethical Theories

1. Ethical theories aid in identifying the moral considerations or reasons that constitute a dilemma. 2. They provide a precise sense of what kinds of information are relevant to solving moral development. 3. They sometimes, offer ways to rank the relevant moral considerations in order of importance and provide a rough guidance in solving moral problems. 4. The theories help us identify the full moral ramifications of alternative courses of action, urging a wide perspective on the moral implications of the options and providing a systematic framework of comparing alternatives. 5. The theories augment the precision with which we use moral terms and they provide frame works for moral reasoning when discussing moral issues with colleagues. 6. By providing frame works for development of moral arguments, the theories strengthen our ability to reach balanced and insightful judgments.