Psychology 101: Psychology Chapter 1: Psychology The study of mental processes and behaviour Psychology: Scientific investigation of mental

l processes and behaviour. Biopsychology: Examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as emotion and stress Cross-Cultural psychology: Tests psychological hypothesis in different cultures. The constraints within which psychological processes operate. Specific to particular cultures. Localisation of function: Aphasia: Language disorders Brocas area: Language production Wernickes area: Language comprehension The history of psychology: Nature: Genetics Plato Nurture: Environmental Aristotle Free will or determinism: Whether people freely choose their actions or whether behaviour follows lawful patterns Mind body problem: How mental and physical events interact Structuralism: Edward Titchner attempted to use introspection to uncover basic elements of consciousness Functionalism: Explanations of psychological processes in helping the individual adapt to the environment Perspectives in Psychology: Paradigm: Broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community to make sense of a domain of experience Psychodynamic: Originated by Sigmund Freud (1856 1939) Unconscious processes motivate behaviour Repression, dream analysis Single case studies, lacked evidence to support therapies Behaviourism: Behaviour determined by stimulus response to relationships John Watson (1878 1958) infamous study of Little Albert B.F Skinner (1904 1990) operant conditioning using pigeons, stimulus response Laboratory experimentation The mind as an unknowable black box Humanism: Carl Rogers (1902 1987) Person centred therapy Empathy unconditional positive regard or non passive love between therapist and client Self-actualisation fulfilment of needs Cognitivism: The mind as an information processor Mental representations of the real environment Memory encoding, storage and retrieval of data Experimental

Evolutionary psychology: Charles Darwin (1809 1882) Its all in the genes Natural Selection How we behave today is a product of our evolutionary ancestry Through natural selection and adaptation we have evolved to behave this way Reproductive success success of genetically related individuals Psychology in Australia and New Zealand: Must register with a psychologists registration board to practise 4yr accredited University degree PLUS Postgraduate (clinical masters) OR 2yr supervision by a registered psychologist Careers in psychology: Medicare rebates for psychological services introduced in 2006 More Australians can now access effective treatment for mental health problems Employment opportunities for psychologists have never been brighter Health, sport, counselling, clinical, forensic etc

Topic 2 Chapter 2: Research methods in psychology: Standardised procedures: Expose participants in a study to as similar procedures as possible Reliable: if it produces consistent results Valid: Accurately assesses the construct it is intended to measure Experimental research: psychologists manipulate some aspect of a situation (independent variables) and examine the impact on the way participants respond (dependant variables) to assess cause and effect Case study: it is useful in generating hypotheses and in exploring complex phenomena that are not well understood or are difficult to examine. Naturalistic observation: in depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting Survey research: involves asking a large sample of people questions, usually about their attitudes pr behaviours through interviews or questionnaires. Informed consent: requires the participants be informed of the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatments before they agree to participate Deception Blind study: Participants are kept blind to the aims of the investigation until the end. Experimenters need to debrief the participants afterwards removing any stressful after-effects. Double blind study: the researchers and the participants are kept blind Critical thinking: is essential in psychological research. It involves making a logical and rational assessment of information, assessing both strengths and weaknesses. Theory: A systematic way of organising and explain observations, which includes a set of propositions or statements

Hypothesis: Is a tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables. It predicts the findings to see if the theory is correct Variable: is any phenomenon that can differ from one situation to another Continuous variable: A variable that can be placed on a continuum shyness, optimism. Categorical variable: is comprised of grouping of categories gender. It cannot be placed on a continuum. Sample: is a sub group of a population that is likely to be representative of the population as a whole Generalisability: refers to the applicability of findings based on a sample of the entire population of interest. Scientific approach: uses empirical methodologies such as observation and experimentation to gain knowledge. Three main goals: 1. Description 2. Prediction 3. Understanding Independent variables: the experimenter manipulates Dependant variables: Participants responses which indicate if the manipulation had an effect Operationalising: turning an abstract concept into a concrete variable defined by some set of actions or operations Control group: is a neutral condition of an experiment in which participants are not exposed to the experimental manipulation. Confounding variable: A variable that could produce effects that might be confused with the effects of the independent variable Steps in constructing an experiment: Framing the hypothesis Predicting the relationships among two or more variables Operationalising the variables Convert abstract concepts into testable form Developing a standardised procedure Setting up experimental and control conditions Selecting and assigning participants Randomly assigning participants to different positions Applying statistical techniques to the data describing the data and determining the likely hood that differences between the conditions reflect casualty or chance 6. Drawing conclusions evaluating whether or not the data support the hypothesis 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Descriptive research: Describes the phenomena as they already exist rather then manipulating variables to test the effects case studies, survey research, naturalistic observation Ethical guidelines for the conduct of psychological research Australian psychological society developed a code of ethics that sets forth a series of principles or ethics and professional practice Two key ethical issues:

1. Informed consent Participant to agree or refuse to participate 2. Deception Participants are not informed of investigation until the end of study Survey research: Random sample: A sample selected from the general population in a relatively arbitrary eay that does not introduce bias Stratified random sample: Specifics of the percentage of people to be drawn from each population category and randomly selects participants from each category Correlational research: Correlational research: Asses the degree to which two variables are related Positive correlation: between two variables means that the higher the individuals measure on one variable the higher they are likely to measure on the other Negative correlation: means that the higher individuals measure on one variable, the lower they will measure on the other vice versa. Researching the brain: Electroencephalogram (EEG): Measures electrical activity towards the surface of the brain. Every nerve cell produces electrical activity. Diagnoses disorders like epilepsy. Neuroimaging techniques: use computer programs to convert the data from brain scans into visual images of the brain CAT Scans, MRI doesnt use x-rays Position emission tomography (PET): Neuroimaging method that requires injection of a small quantity of radio-active glucose into the bloodstream Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): uses MRI to watch the brain as an individual carries out tasks such as solving mathematical problems or looking at emotionally evocative pictures. Critical thinking: Involved carefully examining and analysing information to judge its value as well as considering other views and explanations before accepting the truthfulness of that information Fallacies in arguments: Good psychological research sets out an argument to establish a conclusion Straw man: Approach involves authors deliberately attacking an opposing argument to strengthen their own needs to be supported with evidence Appeals to popularity: refers to the fallacy that a popular and widespread argument is true. The earth was flat this was untrue but people accepted it without evidence to support it Appeals to authority: Refers to the fallacy that an argument must be true of the authority of the person making it. You should assess the evidence alone and disregard who said it. Arguments directed to the person: the approach in which authors try to strengthen their own position by attacking the authors of alternative arguments.

Summarising the data: Descriptive statisticsDescriptive statistics: allows researchers to summarise data in a readily understandable form. Describing the data to provide frequency distribution Measures of central tendency: Three most common measures 1. Mean = average of all scores 2. Mode = most common score 3. Median = Middle score Standard deviation: the average participant deviates from the mean Normal distribution: The scores participants fall in the middle of the bell shaped distribution and progressively fewer participants have scores at either extreme. Percentile scores Statistical significance: to determine whether positive results are likely to have occurred simply by chance. Probability value p value: represents the probability that positive findings were accidental or were a matter of chance. Effect size: Indicates the magnitude of the experimental effect or the strength of the relationship Chi-square test: is used if both the independent and dependant variables are categorical compares observed data with what should be expected T test: Compares means scores of two groups - Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Topic 3 Chapter 3: Biological bases of mental life and behaviour Neurons: Basic units of the nervous system The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Sensory neurons: Carry sensory information to the central nervous system. Motor neurons: Transmits commands from the brain to the glands and muscles of the body interneurons connect neurons with one another Action potential: is the firing of the neuron, or a nerve impulse Neurotransmitters: Transmit information from one neuron to another as they are released into the synapse. Endocrine system: Is a collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones The peripheral nervous system: Somatic nervous system: Carries sensory information to the brain and motor neurons that direct the action of the skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system: Controls basic life processes such as heartbeat, digestive system and breathing. Consists of two parts: 1. Sympathetic nervous system 2. Parasympathetic nervous system The central nervous system: The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord carries out reflexes, transmits sensory information to the brain and transmits sensory information from the brain to the muscles and organs. Hindbrain consists of the medulia oblongola links the brain to the spinal cord controlling the supply of air and blood to regulate the arousal level. The midbrain consists of the textrum helps orient to visual and auditory stimuli with eye and body movements The forebrain involved in emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes The cerebral cortex- consists of two hemispheres, four lobes 1. Occipital lobes 2. Parietal lobes 3. Frontal lobes 4. Temporal lobes Involves in complex mental processes perception and thinking Heritability: refers to the proportion of variability among individuals on an observed characteristics Neurons: Basic units of the nervous system: Nervous system comprised of three kinds of neurons: 1. Sensory neurons transmits information from receptors to the brain 2. Motor neurons transmits commands from interneurons to the glands and muscles of the body 3. Interneurons nerve cells that connect other neurons with one another Anatomy of a neuron: Cell body: Includes a nucleus that contains genetic material of the cell chromosomes Dendrites: Branch like extensions of a neuron Axon: Long extension from the cell body whose function is to transmit information to other neurons Myeline sheath: Tight coat of cells composed primarily of lipids (fats) that transmit information to other neurons. Insulates the axon Terminal buttons: Sends signals from a neuron to adjacent cells. Synapse: the space between neurons in which they communicate Resting potentials: Neuron is not firing has stored up potential to be used Graded Potentials: Spreading voltage changes that occur when the neutral membrane receives signals from other cells. Action potentials: The shift in polarity across the membrane and subsequent restoration of the resting potential firing of the neuron. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that transmits information from one cell to another. Receptors: protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane that receive chemical messages. Glutamate: (Glutamic acid) A neurotransmitter that can excite nearly every neuron in a nervous system. GABA: (Gamma-amino butyric acid) opposite role plays an inhibitory role

Dopamine: neurotransmitter that has wide ranging effects in the nervous system thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour. Serotonin: Regulation of mood, sleep, eating, arousal and pain. Acetylylcholine: learning and memory Endorphins: chemicals that elevate mood and reduce pain means produced in the body Endocrine system: Collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones. Complements the cell-to-cell communication of the nervous system by sending global messages through the bloodstream. hormones Adrenaline and noradrenalin trigger physiological arousal - in danger situations Pituitary gland: Master gland many of the hormones it releases stimulate and regulate the other glands oval structure (size of a pea) Thyroid gland: Located in the neck releases hormones that control growth and metabolism. Effects levels and mood sluggishness, depression Adrenal glands: Located above the kidneys. Secrete adrenalin and other hormones during emergencies. Gonads: Endocrine glands that influence sexual development and behaviour males: testosterone. Female: Estrogens. The peripheral nervous system: Consists of neurons that convey messages to and from the central nervous system. Consists of two subdivisions: 1. Somatic 2. Autonomic The somatic nervous system: Transmits sensory information to the central nervous system and carries out its motor commands. Sensory neurons receive information through receptors - eyes, ears, tongue, skin The autonomic nervous system: Conveys information to and from internal bodily structures that carry out basic life processes digestion, respiration. Consists of two parts: 1. Sympathetic nervous system (emergency system) 2. Parasympathetic nervous system (business-as-usual) Sympathetic nervous system: Activated in response to threats. Ready the body for fight or flight stops digestion, diverting blood from stomach to muscles.

Parasympathetic nervous system: Supports more mundane, routine activities that maintain the bodys store of energy, such as regulating blood sugar levels, secreting saliva and eliminating wastes.

The central nervous system: Comprised of the spinal cord and brain

Spinal cord: Sends information from sensory neurons in various parts of the body to the brain, and it relays motor commands back to the muscles and organs via motor neurons. Is segmented with each segment controlling a different part of the body The brain consists of three main parts: 1. Hindbrain 2. Midbrain 3. Forebrain Hindbrain: Directly above the spinal cord several structures: Medulla oblongata, cerebellum, reticular formation.

Medulla oblongata: an extension of the spinal cord that links the cord to the brain controls physiological functions heartbeat, circulation, respiration. Cerebellum: Large structure at the back of the brain involved in movement Reticular formation: is a diffuse network of neurons that extends from the lowest parts of the medulla in the hindbrain to the upper end of the midbrain. Functions include: maintaining consciousness, regulates arousal levels and moderate the activity of neurons. The Midbrain: Mid brain consists of the: 1. Tectum 2. Tegmentum Tectum: Structures involved in vision and hearing Tegmentum: Related to movement The Forebrain: Involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes consists of: 1. Hypothalamus 2. Thalamus

3. Cerebrum Subcorical structures: (below the cortex) outer layers of the cerebrum, or cortex that we devote a separate section to them. Hypothalamus: Helps regulate eating, sleeping, sexual activity and emotional experiences Thalamus: Processes incoming sensory information and transmits it to higher brain areas Basal Ganglia: Involved in the control of movement and also play a part in automatic responses and judgements Limbic System Septal area: involved in pleasure, relief from pain, emotionally-significant learning Amygdala: involved in learning and remembering emotionally significant events, and recognition of fear Hippocampus: involved in the storage of new memories The Cerebral Cortex Functions of cerebral cortex: Provides for flexible control of patterns of movement Permits subtle discrimination among complex sensory patterns Sensory patterns Makes possible symbolic thinking Functional organisation of cortex: Primary areas raw sensory information Association areas forming perceptions, ideas, plans

Cerebral hemispheres: Separated longitudinal fissure. Cerebrum is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves. Corpus callosum: A band of neural fibres connects the right and left hemispheres. Consists of four regions or lobes: 1. Occipital lobes 2. Parietal lobes 3. Frontal lobes 4. Temporal lobes Occipital lobes: located near the rear portion of the cortex specialised for vision Parietal lobes: located in front of the occipital lobes sense of touch, detecting movement, locating objects Primary area in the parietal lobes if the somatosensory cortex: lies directly behind the central fissure which divides the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe receives information from different parts of the body. Frontal lobes: involved in movement, attention, planning, social skills, abstract thinking, memory and personality Temporal lobes: located in the lower side portions of the cortex hearing, language Cerebral Lateralisation Hemispheric Specialisation Left hemisphere is dominant for language, logic and complex motor behaviour. Right hemisphere is dominant for non-linguistic functions including forming visual maps of the environment The genetics of behaviour: Historically, For centuries, inheritance was believed to be a mixing of the blood The 19 century - People who bread animals knew that it was possible to produce offspring with particular characteristics eg. Huge carthorses to pull heavy loads Discovered it was possible to manipulate the development of an animal - Still didnt know how this was possible Lamarck: first evolutionary theory to gain widespread significance Lamarck published the Inheritance of acquired characteristics in 1809 Develop new physical Traits cause they needed to: Giraffes grew longer necks Because it was desirable that they did so Organisms have a goal The work of Mendel Discovered that characteristics were not a product of the environment They were derived from characteristics already inherent in the animal/plant Psychology in the early years (Late 1800s and the 1900s) The blank slate (tabula rasa, meaning scraped tablet), John Locke (1632-1704) The idea that we are born with no innate capacities All characteristics of an individual are created during their lifetime through experience Behaviourism held a central place in Psychology, particularly between 1920 & 1970

The Birth of Behaviour Genetics Merriman (1924) First comparison of identical and fraternal twins to estimate heritability Studied IQ Observed identical twins were more similar than fraternal twins Suggested genetic influence Phenotype = observable or measurable characteristics Hair colour, Genotype = genetic complement of person Having a recessive gene for colour blindness Genes arent destiny Just because a trait shows genetic determinism doesnt mean nothing can be done to change it For behavioural disorders The link between specific genes and behaviour is weak, with many genes are involved Probabilistic propensity Higher genetic risk of Major Depression Does not guarantee the disorder will occur Heritability does not prevent an extreme environmental remedy Genetic similarities Identical (or monozygotic, MZ) twins have all their genes in common Fraternal (or dizygotic, DZ) have (on average) half their genes in common Environmental similarities MZ and DZ twins share the same common environment MZ and DZ twins share none of their unique environment Gene: Unit of hereditary transmission Chromosomes: strands of paired DNA that spiral around each other Degree of relatedness: The probability of sharing genes among relatives Heritability coefficient: quantifies the extent to which variation in the trait across individuals can be accounted for by genetic variation. Heritability: Genetic influences on variability among individuals Topic 4 Chapter 4: Sensation and perception Sensation: the process by which organs gather information about the environment and transmit it to the brain for initial processing Perception: Process by which the brain selects, organises and interprets sensations Three basic principles that apply across all senses: 1. There is no one to one correspondence between physical and psychological reality 2. Sensation and perception are active, not passive 3. Sensory and perceptual processes reflect the impact of adaptive pressures over the course of evolution. Vision: Light is just one form of electromagnetic radiation, but it is a form to which the eye is sensitive From the optic nerve, visual information travels along two pathways: - Midbrain eye movements - Lateral geniculate nucleus - visual cortex

Two basic processes occur in the eyes: 1. Light is focussed on the retina by the cornea, pupil and lens 2. The retina transduces this visual image into a code that the brain can read Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory: the eye contains three kinds of receptors that are most sensitive to wave lengths experienced as red, green, blue. Opponent-process theory: Colours we experience reflect three antagonistic colour systems blue, yellow, red, green, black, white system Hearing: Sounds travels in waves which occur as a vibrating object sets air particles in motion The sounds waves frequency (pitch) refers to the number of particles oscillate per second Loudness of a sound reflects the height and depth (amplitude) of the wave. Sound waves travel through the auditory canal to the eardrum, which sets the ossicles in motion, amplifying the sound. Other senses: Transduction of smell (olfaction) occurs in the olfactory epithelium thin structures at the top of the nasal cavities Transduction occurs in the taste buds distributed throughout the mouth and throat The proprioceptive senses (vestibular sense and kinaesthesia) register body position and movement Sensing the environment: Transduction: process of converting stimulus information into neural impulses Absolute threshold: Minimum amount of energy needed for an observer to sense that a stimulus is present Difference threshold: lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a charge in stimulation has occurred Sensory adaptation: Tendance of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continues without change Perception: Perceptual organisation: integrates sensations into percepts, locates them in space and preserves their meaning as the perceiver examines them from different vantage points There are four aspects of perceptual organisation: 1. Form perception 2. Distance perception (depth) 3. Motion perception 4. Perceptual constancy Perceptual interpretation: involves generating meaning from sensory experience - Lies at the intersection of sensation and memory Bottom up processing: emphasises the role of data in shaping perception Top down processing: emphasises the influence of prior experience on perception Psychophysics: The branch of psychology that studies the relationship between attributes of the physical world and our psychological experience of them.

Sensory receptors: Transform energy in the environment into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain. Signal detection theory: Sensation is not a passive process that occurs when the amount of stimulation exceeds a critical threshold either, experiencing a sensation means making a judgement about whether a stimulus is present or absent Response bias: The individuals readiness to report detecting a stimulus when uncertain. Difference threshold: the lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred difference in intensity between two stimuli Just noticeable difference (jnd) Webers law: states that regardless of the magnitude of two stimuli, the second must differ by a constant proportion from the first for it to be perceived as different. Fechners law: Holds that the physical magnitude of a stimulus grows logarithmically as the subjective experience of intensity grows arithmetically people only subjectively experience a small percentage of actual increases in stimulus intensity. Stevens power law: subjective intensity grows as a proportion of the actual intensity raised to some power sensation increases in a linear fashion as intensity grows exponentially Sensory adaptation: the tendency of sensory receptors to respond less to stimuli that continues without change Wavelengths: particles oscillate more or less frequently higher or lower frequency. Focusing light: Cornea: Tough, transparent tissue covering the front of the eyeball Pupil: an opening in the centre of the iris Iris: Pigmented tissue that gives the eye blue, green, brown colour. Lens: elastic disc shaped structure about the size of a lima bean that involves focussing. Accommodation: process in focussing on objects Retina: light sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye that transduces light into visual sensations-receives a constant flow of images Structure of the retina: Two types of light receptors: 1. Rods 2. Cones Bipolar cells: Neurons in the retina that combine information from many receptors and excite ganglion cells Ganglion cells: Nerve cells in the retina that integrate information from multiple bipolar cells the axons bundle together to form the optic nerve Optic nerve: Bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carry information from the retina to the brain. Fovea: central region of the retina most sensitive to small detail vision is sharpest for stimuli in direct sight Blind spot: The point on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye has no receptor cells Receptive field: Region within a neuron which responds to appropriate stimulation

Blind sight: A phenomena in which individuals with cortical lesions have no conscious visual awareness but can make discriminations about objects placed in front of them. Rods and cones: Rods: more sensitive to light than cones, allowing vision in dim light. Are concentrated in the centre of the retina Cones: require more light to be activated, which is why we see little to no colour in dim light. Receptive field: a region within which a neuron responds to appropriate stimulation. Feature detectors: are neurons that fire only when stimulation in their receptive field matches a very specific pattern. What pathway: runs from the striate cortex in the occipital lobes through the lower part of the temporal lobes. Involved in determining what an object is. Where pathway: involved in locating the object in space, following its movement. Young-Helmholtz(trichromatic) theory of colour: The eye contains three types of receptors, each maximimally sensitive to wavelengths of light that produce sensations of blue, green or red. Opponent-process theory: argues that all colours are derived from three antagonistic colour systems: Black white Blue yellow Red green The black white system contributes to brightness and saturation. The other two are responsible for hue. Audition: or hearing that occurs as a vibrating object sets air particles in motion. Cycle: Round expansion and contraction of air Sound waves: rhythmic pulsations of sound that is spread out from the vibrating object. They grow weaker with distance; however travel at a constant speed. Frequency: A measure of how often or hoe frequently a wave cycles Hertz, Hz: One Hertz equals one cycle per second Pitch: the quality of tone from high to low Complexity: the extent to which a sound is composed of multiple frequencies, and corresponds to the timbre Timbre: Texture of the sound The ear Transduction of the sound occurs in the ear, which consists of an outer, inner and middle ear. Outer: collects and magnifies sound in the air Middle: converts waves of air pressure into movements of tiny bones Inner: transforms movements into waves in fluid that generate neural signals Tympanic membrane (eardrum): A thin, flexible membrane at the end of the auditory canal

Cochlea: Three chambered tube in the inner ear shaped like a snail and involved in transduction of sound. When the stirrup vibrates against the oval window, the oval window vibrates, causing pressure waves in the cochlear fluid These waves disturb the basilar membrane, which separates two of the cochleas chambers Auditory nerve: Transmits auditory information to the brain Hair cells: Attached to the basilar membrane as receptors for sound Place theory: different areas of the basilar membrane are maximally sensitive to different frequencies. Frequency theory: more frequently a sound waves cycles, the more frequently the basilar membrane vibrates and its hair cells fire. Sound localisation: identifying the location of a sound in space. The differences between loudness and timing

Olfaction: Smell. It enables us to detect danger (fire), discriminate palatable from unpalatable or spoiled foods and recognise familiar others Pheromones: scent messages detected through an auxiliary olfactory system that regulates sexual behaviour. Olfactory epithelium: A thin pair of structures less than 2.5cm2 in diameter at the top of the nasal cavities. Transduce the stimulus into olfactory sensations Olfactory nerve: transmits information to the olfactory bulbs, multilayered structures that combine information from receptor cells. Gustation: Taste. Sensitive to molecules soluble in saliva Tastebuds: transduction occurs in the tastebuds. Bumps on the surface of the mouth and throat. Phantom limbs: misleading sensations from missing limbs. Each of the skin senses transduces a distinct form of stimulation. 1. Pressure receptors transduce mechanical energy (like receptors in the ear) 2. Temperature receptors respond to thermal energy (heat) 3. Pain receptors do not directly transform external stimulation into psychological experience rather they respond to a range of internal and external bodily states, from strained muscles to damaged skin.

4.
Gate-control theory: emphasise the role of the central nervous system brain and spinal cord. When sensory neurons transmit information to the back (dorsal region) of the spinal cord, input from other nearby sensory neurons transmit as well as from messages descending from the brain, can inhibit or amplify their pain signals

Proprioceptive senses: registers body position and movement. Vestibular sense: provides information about the position of the body in space by sensing gravity and movement. Organs are inner ear and the cochlea Kinaesthesia: provides information about the movement and position of the limbs and other parts of the body relative to another. Essential in guiding every complex movement from walking to drinking a cup of coffee. Perceptual organisation: integrates sensations into precepts ( meaningful perceptual units), locates them in space, and preserves their meaning as the perceiver examines them from different vantage points. Form perception: refers to the organisation of sensations into meaningful shapes and patterns Gestalt principles: Proposed a small number of perceptual rules the brain automatically and unconsciously follows as it organises sensory input into wholes Figure-ground perception: People inherently distinguish between figure (object) and ground (background). Similarity: The brain tends to group similar elements together. (a) Proximity (nearness): The brain tends to group together objects that are close to one another. (b) Good continuation: If possible, the brain organises stimuli into continuous lines or patterns rather than discontinuous elements. (c) Simplicity: People tend to perceive the simplest pattern possible (d) Closure: People tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete. If part of a familiar pattern or shape is missing, perceptual processes complete the pattern. (e)

Recognition-by-components: we perceive and categorise objects in our environment by breaking them down into component parts and then matching the components and the way they are arranged against similar sketches stored in memory. Perceptual illusions: normal perceptual processes produce perceptual misinterpretations. Depth/ distance perception: The organisation of perception in three dimensions height, width, breath. Binocular cues: Visual input integrated from the two eyes Monocular cues: visual input from one eye Inter position: When one object blocks part of another the object is perceived as more distant Elevation: Objects farther away are higher on a persons plane of view and thus appear higher up towards the horizon Texture and gradient: Textured surfaces (cobblestones), appear coarser at close range, and finer and more densely packed at greater distances Linear perspectives: Parallel line appear to converge in the distance

Shading: The brain assumes that light comes from above and hence interprets shading differently towards the top or the bottom of an object Aerial perspective: because light scatter s as it passes through space, and especially through moist or polluted air, objects at greater distances appear fuzzier Familiar size: people tend to assume an object is its usual size and therefore perceive familiar objects that appear small as distant Relative size: when looking at two objects known to be of similar size, people perceive the smaller object as farther way

Binocular cells: receives information from both eyes Motion parallax: the disparity in apparent velocity Motion detector/ ganglion cells: particularly sensitive to movement

Two systems for processing movement. In (a), a stationary eye detects movement as an object moves across the person's visual field, progressively moving across the retina. In (b), the eye moves along with the object, which casts a relatively constant retinal image. What changes are the background and signals from the brain that control the muscles that move the eyes. Perceptual constancy: perception of objects as relatively stable despite changes in stimulation of sensory receptors. Colour constancy: the tendency to perceive the colour of objects as stable despite changing illumination. Shape consistency: we can maintain constant perception of the shape of objects despite the fact that the same object typically produces a new and different impression on the retina every time we encounter it. Size consistency: objects do not appear to change in size when viewed from different distances. The closer an object is, the larger an image it casts on the retina Muller-Lyer illusion: two lines of equal length appear to differ in size. It relies on depth cues such as linear perspective Perceptual interpretation: Generating meaning from sensory experience Direct perception: the meaning of stimuli is often immediate and obvious, even to the untrained eye Visual cliff: A clear table with a checkerboard directly underneath it and another that appears to drop off like a cliff

Bottom-up processing: explanation of visual perception argues that the brain forms perceptions by combining the responses of multiple feature detectors in the primary cortex. Top-down processing: the brain uses prior knowledge to begin organising and interpreting sensations as soon as the information starts coming in, rather then waiting for precepts to form a based sequential analysis.

Context: plays a substantial role in perceptual interpretation Important in perceiving spoken language Schemas: Patterns of thinking about a domain that render the environment relatively predictable Because schemas allow individuals to anticipate what they will encounter, they increase both the speed and efficiency of perception Topic 5 Chapter 5: Consciousness Nature of consciousness Consciousness: Refers to the subjective awareness of mental events. Serves two functions: 1. Monitoring the self and the environment 2. Controlling thought and behaviour Attention: Refers to the process of focusing conscious awareness, providing heightened sensitivity to a limited range of experience requiring more extensive information processing Daydreaming: Turning attention away from external stimuli to internal thoughts and imagined scenarios Perspectives on consciousness Psychodynamic perspective: Freud distinguished three types of mental activities: 1. Conscious: processes of which the person is currently subjectively ware 2. Preconscious: processes which are not presently conscious but could be readily brought to consciousness 3. Unconscious: Processes which are dynamically kept from consciousness because they are threatening Cognitive unconscious: focuses on the information processing mechanisms that operate outside of awareness such as procedural knowledge and implicit memory Behavioural perspective: Consciousness was considered analogous to a continuously moving video camera surveying thoughts, emotions, goals and problem solving strategies. Two functions: 1. Monitor 2. Control

Evolutionary perspective: consciousness evolved as a mechanism for diecting behaviour in adaptive ways, which was superimposed on more primitive psychological processes such as conditioning foster adaption Sleeping and dreaming Circadian rhythms: cyclical biological clocks that evolved around the daily cycles of light and dark The cycle of sleep and waking in humans and other animals, like the ebb and flow of body temperature, hormones and other life support processes Sleep proceeds though a series of stages that can be assessed by EEg. Rapid eye movement (REM): Most sleeping occurs in REM sleep, in which the eyes dart around Non-REM sleep (NREM): takes on an active pattern resembling waking consciousness Altered states of consciousness: Alter states of consciousness: in which the usual conscious ways of perceiving, thinking and feeling are modified or disrupted, are often brought about by meditation, hypnosis, ingestion of drugs and religious experiences Meditation: creates a deep state of tranquillity by altering the normal flow of conscious thoughts Hypnosis: is characterised by deep relaxation and suggestibility Psychoactive substances: The most common way people alter their state of consciousness Ingestion of alcohol and other depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens and marijuana operate on the nervous system to alter mental activity Synaesthesia: hearing colours, feeling sounds and tasting shapes Selective inattention: people sometime divert information that may be relevant but emotionally upsetting Attention consists of three functions: 1. Orienting to sensory stimuli Involves turning sensory organs such as they eyes and ears towards a stimulus 2. Controlling behaviour and the contents of consciousness Deciding how much to listen as someone is talking To notice something consciously, unconscious attentional mechanisms have to alert us to its potential significance 3. Maintaining alertness Crucial in tasks ranging from focusing on test items in the face of anxiety, to staying alert for hours while watching a radar screen to small but meaningful changes A whole network of neurons from the reticular formation through the frontal lobes appear to be involved in alertness. Divided attention: Splitting attention between two complex tasks Dichotic listening: Participants are fitted with earphones and different information is simultaneously presented to the left and right ears. Numbers and words Experience-sampling: techniques in which participants report on the consciousness at specific times. It is then categorised into categories: 1. Emotional tone 2. Relevance to the task 3. Solving the task

Beeper studies: an experience-sampling technique that has provided a more natural window to the flow of consciousness in everyday life. Participants carry pagers or palm top computers and reports their experience when beeped at various points during the day Subliminal perception: perception of stimuli below the threshold of consciousness Use of a device called a tachistoscope which can flash images too quickly for conscious recognition but slowly enough to be registered outside of awareness Cognitive unconscious: research that refers to information processing mechanisms that operate outside of awareness rather than information the person is motivated to keep from awareness. Freud called descriptively but not dynamically unconscious processes. Long term sleep deprivation reduces the functioning of the immune system and makes the body more vulnerable to diseases ranging from common colds to cancer Insomnia: Inability to sleep A psychodynamic view of dreaming Freud believed that dreams, like all mental events, have meaning but must be deciphered by someone skilled in dream interpretation. Manifest content: Storyline of the dream Latent content: the dreams underlying meaning Cognitive view of dreaming Suggest that dreams are cognitive constructions that reflect the concerns and metaphors people express in their waking thought dreams are simply a form of thought At times may even serve a problem solving function, presenting dreamers with potential solutions to problems they face during the day Biological view of dreaming Dreams are biological phenomena with no meaning at all. Dreams reflect cortical interpretations of random neural signals initiated in the midbrain during REM sleep Meditation: the meditator develops a deep state of tranquillity by altering the normal flow of conscious thoughts. By focusing attention on a simple stimulus or by concentrating on stimuli that are usually in the background of awareness meditation shuts down the normal flow of self-conscious inner dialogue Mediation can produce a state of serenity that is reflected in altered brain wave activity. Hypnotic susceptibility: the capacity to enter into deep hypnotic states. People who are highly hypnotisable tend to be able to form vivid visual images and to become readily absorbed in fantasy. Depressants: substances that depress or slow down the nervous system. Barbiturates (downers) provide a sedative or calming effect. Benzodiazepines an anti-anxiety agent, serves as tranquilisers. Can cause psychological and physical dependence

Stimulants: drugs that increase alertness, energy and autonomic reactivity (heart rate and blood pressure). Nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines and cocaine. Hallucinogens: alter sensory data to provide bizarre or unusual perceptions. People using may experience speeding up or slowing down or sense colours busting from the sky. Ecstasy. Marijuana: produces a state of being high or stoned. Like harder drugs it artificially manipulates dopamine reward circuits in the brain Religious experiences: are subjective experiences of being in contact with the divine or spiritual. They vary from relatively ordinary experiences, such as listening passively to a sermon, to altered states of consciousness in which a person feels at one with nature or the supernatural Topic 6 Chapter 6: Learning Learning: refers to any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience Classical conditioning: refers to learning in which an environmental stimulus produces a response in an organism. Unconditional stimulus (UCS): The stimulus the produces the response in an unconditioned reflect Conditioned stimulus (CS):is a stimulus that, through learning, has come to evoke a conditioned response. Unconditioned response (UCR): is a response that does not have to be learned. Pavlovs dogs Conditioned responses (CR): such as taste aversions and immune responses, are learned reflexes that can produce both adaptive and maladaptive responses Stimulus generalisation: occurs when an organism learns to respond to stimuli that resemble the CS with a similar response Stimulus discrimination: occurs when an organism learns to respond to a restricted range of stimuli Extinction: occurs when CR is weakened by presentation of the CS without the UCS. Occurs if enough trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the consequences previously associated with it. Inter stimulus interval: the degree to which the presence of the CS is predictive of the UCS, the individuals learning history Prepared learning: precisely what organisms learn when in classical conditioning is a matter of debate. Operant conditioning: learning to operate on the environment and produce a consequence Operant: behaviours that is emitted rather than elicited by the environment Reinforcement: refers to a consequence that increases the probability that a response will recur Punishment: decreases the probability that a response will recur Cognitive social theory: incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds cognition and social learning Humans develop mental images of, and expectations about, the environment, and these cognitions influence their behaviour Social leaning: learning that occurs through social interaction Reflex: behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus a knee jerk Stimulus: something in the environment that elicits a response Habituation: decreasing strength of a reflex response after repeated presentations of the stimulus. Laws of association: conditions under which one thought becomes connected, or associated with another to account for learning and memory

Law of contiguity: two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time (thunder and lightning). Law of similarity: objects that resemble each other (two people with similar faces) are likely to become associated Classical conditioning: Pavlovian conditioning Classical conditioning occurs when we learn to identify a relationship between two different stimuli Acquisition: the initial stage of learning in which the conditioned response becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus Inter-stimulus interval: the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS. Blocking: failure of a stimulus (such as a flash of light) combined with another stimulus that already elicits the response Latent inhibition: initial exposure to a neutral stimulus without a UCS slows the process of later learning CS-UCS association and developing a CR. Prepared learning: biologically wired readiness to learn some associations more easily than others. Law of prediction: CS-UCS association will form to the extent that the presence of the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS. Paradoxical conditioning: the CR is the bodys attempt to counteract the effects of a stimulus that is about to occur. Long term potentiating (LTP): the tendency of a group of neurons to fire more readily after consistent stimulation from other neurons. Contextual learning: learning about the context Law of effect: An animals tendency to reproduce behaviour depends on that behaviours effect on the environment and the consequent effect on the animal. Operant conditioning: learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence Operants: behaviours that are emitted (spontaneously produced) rather than elicited by the environment. Environmental consequence that produce operant conditioning: 1. Reinforcement: increases the probability that a response will occur 2. Punishment: diminishes its likelihood Reinforcer: an environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response and makes the response more likely to recur. Positive reinforcement: the process whereby presentation of a stimulus (a reward) after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur again. Positive reinforcer: an environmental consequence that when presented strengthens the probability that a response will recur. The pigeon would thus start to peck at the target more frequently because this operant became associated with the positive reinforcer. Superstitious behaviour: humans and other animals can develop phobias forming idiosyncratic associations, they can also erroneously associate an operant and an environmental event. Negative reinforcement: the process of termination of an aversive stimulus makes a behaviour more likely to occur. Negative reinforcers: aversive or unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a behaviour by their removal

Escape learning: behaviour is reinforced by the elimination of an aversive state of affairs that already exists Avoidance learning: occurs as an organism learns to prevent an expected aversive event from happening Punishment: Punishment decreases the probability that the behaviour will recur. Positive punishment, such as spanking, exposure to an aversive event following behaviour reduces the likelihood of the operant recurring. Negative punishment involves losing, or not obtaining a reinforcer because of behaviour when an employer fails to receive a pay increase because of frequent lateness. Aggression that is used to punish behaviour often leads to further aggression. Punishment is most effective when it is accompanied by reasoning. Extinction: occurs if enough conditioning trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the consequence previously associated with it. Conditioning processes. Behaviourists distinguish two kinds of conditioning: classical and operant. In operant conditioning, the environment influences behaviour through reinforcement and punishment.

Continuous reinforcement schedule: (behaviour is continuously reinforced). A child is reinforced for selfless behaviour on a continuous schedule. Partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement: behaviours that are reinforced only part of the time or intermittently. Ratio schedules: rewards are tied to the number of responses emitted only a fraction of correct behaviours receive reinforcement Interval schedules: rewards or punishments are delivered only after some interval of time

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule: an organism receives reinforcement for a fixed proportion of the responses it emits. A worker receives payment for every bushel of apples picked (FR-1) Variable-ratio (VR) schedules: an animal receives a reward for some percentage of responses but the number of responses required before reinforcement is unpredictable. Variable-ratio schedules specify an average number of responses that will be rewarded. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule: an animal receives reinforcement for its responses only after a fixed amount of time. Variable-internal (VI) schedule: ties reinforcement to an interval time, but unlike a fixed-interval schedule, the animal cannot predict how long that time interval may be. Response contingency: A connection that may exist between behaviour and a consequence the consequence is dependant, contingent on the behaviour. Discriminative stimulus (SD): a stimulus that signals the presence of particular contingencies of reinforcement. Shaping: A procedure used by animal trainers to produce novel behaviour by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired response The key is to begin by reinforcing a response the animal can readily produce. Successive approximations: the process of rewarding behaviours that move the subject progressively closer to the desired behaviour. Biofeedback: psychologists feed information back to patients about their biological processes allowing them to gain operant control over autonomic responses such as heart rate, body temperature and blood pressure. As patients monitor their physiological processes on an electronic device or computer screen, they receive reinforcement for changes such as decreased muscle tension or heart rate. Chaining: Involves putting together a sequence of existing responses in a novel order. Cognitive-social theory: incorporates concepts of conditioning but adds two new features: 1. A focus on cognition 2. A focus on social learning Humans and animals are always developing mental images of and expectations about the environment and these cognitions influence their behaviour Cognitive maps: mental representations or images of the maze even though they had received no reinforcement. Latent learning: learning that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behaviour Latent learning is evidence that knowledge or beliefs about the environment are crucial to the way animals behave. Insight: the sudden understanding of the relation between a problem and a solution

Expectancies: consequences of a behaviour are what render the behaviour more or less likely to occur. If a person expects a behaviour to produce a reinforcing consequence, she is likely to perform it as long as she has the competence or skill to do so. Generalised expectancies: expectancies that influence a broad spectrum of behaviour. Locus of control of reinforcement: refers to the generalised expectancies people hold about whether or not their own behaviour can bring about the outcomes they seek Internal locus of control: believe they are the masters of their own fate. External locus of control: believe their lives are determined by forces outside themselves. Learned helplessness: consists of the expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the motivational and learning deficits that result from this belief. Explanatory style: the way people make sense of bad events plays a crucial role in whether or not they become and remain depressed. Pessimistic explanatory style: blames themselves for the bad things that happen to them. Social learning: learning that takes place as a direct result of social interaction Observational learning: learning by observing the behaviour of others Modelling: observational learning in which a person learns to reproduce behaviour exhibited by a model Vicarious conditioning: a person learns the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else Whether an individual actually performs modelled behaviour also depend on the behaviours likely outcome This outcome expectancy is itself often learned through an observational learning mechanism Tutelage: teaching concepts or procedures primarily through verbal explanation or instruction. This is a central mechanism involved in formal education

Topic 7 Chapter 7: Memory Sensory representations: store information in a sensory mode Verbal representations: store information in words The standard model of memory is predicted on the metaphor of the mind as a computer, it distinguishes three stores: 1. Sensory memory 2. Short-term memory (STM) 3. Long term memory (LTM) LTM is organised in terms of schemas, organised knowledge structures or patterns of thought. Encoded: to be retrieved from memory, information must be cast into a representational form or code that can be readily accessed Mnemonic devices: systematic strategies for remembering information Networks of association: knowledge stored in memory forms clusters of interconnected information.

Declarative memory: refers to memory for facts and events Can be semantic (language) Episodic Procedural memory: refers to how to knowledge of procedure skills Explicit memory: refers to conscious recollection Implicit memory: refers to memory that is expressed in behaviour Everyday memory: memory as it occurs in daily life Working memory: temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands or achieve goals. Includes 1. Storage capacity 2. Processing capacity Contemporary models distinguish between two kinds of temporary memory: 1. Visual store (the visuospatial sketchpad) 2. Verbal store Anterograde amnesia: involves the inability to retain new memories Retrograde amnesia: losing memories from a period before the time that the persons brain was damaged. Sensory representations: store information in a sensory mode, such as the sound of a dog barking. Verbal representations: Information stored into words Many people store memory for actions as motoric representations Sensory registers: holds information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after the stimulus disappears, allowing a mental representation of it to remain in memory briefly for further processing Iconic storage: momentary memory for visual information. For a brief period after an image disappears from vision, people retain a mental image or icon of what they have seen. Echoic storage: momentary memory for auditory information Short-term memory (STM): a memory store that holds a small amount of information in consciousness a phone number for 20-30 seconds Rehearsal: to prevent the number from fading until the number is dialled Maintenance rehearsal: mental repetition in order to maintain information in the STM Elaborative rehearsal: Actually thinking about the material while committing it to memory, is more useful for long term than for short term storage Revival: involves bringing back into STM. Recovering information from the LTM Serial position effect: a tendency to remember information towards the beginning and end of a list rather than in the middle. Modules: discrete but interdependent processing units responsible for different kinds of remembering. Working memory: temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems respond to environmental demands or achieve goals

Chunking: a memory technique that uses knowledge stored in the LTM to group information in larger units rather than single words or digits. Declarative memory: memory for facts and events much of which can be stated or declared can be divided into semantic and generic memory. Semantic memory: general world knowledge or facts such as the knowledge that winters are cold in Dunedin. Generic memory: semantic memory Episodic memory: consists of memories of particular events, rather than general knowledge. Allows people to travel mentally through time, to remember thoughts and feelings from recent, distant and to imagine the future. Procedural memory: how to knowledge of procedures or skills Explicit memory: conscious recollection or memories Implicit memory: memory that has expressed in behaviour but does not require conscious recollection tying a shoelace Everyday memory: memory as it occurs in daily life Retrospective memory: memory for things from the past, such as lists of words encountered 20mins earlier Prospective memory: memory for things that need to be done in the future, such as picking things up from the corner shop Encoded: retrievable memory must be encoded or cast into representational form, that can be readily accessed Level of processing: the degree in which information is elaborated, reflected upon and processed in a meaningful way, during memory storage Encoding specificity principle: the fact that the ease of retrieval depends on the match between the way information is encoded and later retrieved. Eg. If a student studies for a multiple choice exam and memorises definitions, however doesnt understand the underlying concepts may be in trouble if the exam is an essay as the encoded information is too shallow. Retrieval cues: stimuli or thoughts that can be used to facilitate recollection Spacing effect: the superiority of memory for information rehearsed over longer intervals demonstrates that spacing study sessions over longer intervals tends to double long term retention of information Mnemonic devices: systematic strategies for remembering information Method of Loci: one mnemonic strategy which uses visual imagery as a memory aid Making the image as vivid as possible to maximise the likelihood of retrieving it. SQ4R method: a strategy developed to help students remember information in textbooks Involves six steps: 1. Survey 2. Question 3. Read 4. Recite

5. Review 6. Rewrite Networks of association: cluster of interconnected information People associate a dog with barking and fetching less strongly with cat Node: thoughts, images, concepts, propositions, smells, tastes, emotions or any other piece of information Spreading activation theory: activation one node in a network triggers activation in closely related nodes Presenting a stimulus that leads to firing in the neural circuits that represent that stimulus spreads activation, or energy to related information stored in memory Cultural models: shared cultural concepts shape the way people think and remember. Forgetting: the inability to remember Flashbulb memories: vivid memories of exciting or highly consequential events Decay theory: explains forgetting as a result of a fading memory trace According to decay theory, neurophysiological changes fade with disuse, much as a path in the forest grows over unless repeatedly trodden Interference: the intrusion of similar memories on each other Finding the right path in the neural wilderness is difficult when two look very similar Proactive interference: refers to the interference of previously stored memories with the retrieval of new information When a person calls a new romantic partner the name of the old one Retroactive interference: new information interferes with retrieval of old information As when people have difficulty remembering their phone numbers Motivated forgetting: forgetting for a reason People often explicitly intrust themselves or others to forget, as when a person stops in the middle of a sentence and say opps I forgot that. Topic 8 Chapter 9: Intelligence Intelligence: refers to the application of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems and obtain ends that are valued by an individual or culture Is multifaceted and functional, and directed at problems of adaptation May be culturally defined and shaped since cultural practices support and recognise intellectual qualities that are useful in the social and ecological context Mental age (MA): refers to the average age at which children can be expected to achieve a particular score Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence tests for the purpose of identifying intellectually disabled children

Intelligence quotient (IQ): Terman brought intelligence testing to North America, and expanded the meaning of the IQ from a predictor of school success to a broader index of intellectual ability

IQ = (MA/CA) x 100
Intellectual disability: refers to significantly below average intellectual functioning less than 70. With deficits in adaptive functioning, that are first evident in childhood and appear in more than one realm. Gifted: exceptional individuals who show exceptional talents in social, musical or athletic realms Validity: depends on the purpose to which IQ tests are put, and should be supplemented by other measures. Reliability: refers to a measures ability to produce consistent results Psychometric approach: examines which intellectual abilities tend to correlate statistically with one another. Factors: underlie performance across a set of tasks Factor analysis: identifies common factors that underlie performance across a variety of tasks Information-processing or cognitive approach: aims to describe and measure the specific cognitive processes that underlie intelligent behaviour, including: 1. Speed of processing 2. Knowledge base 3. The ability to learn and apply mental strategies Triarchic theory: Stenberg identified three aspects of intelligence: 1. Experimental intelligence: coping with new situations 2. Contextual intelligence: judging the most effective approach 3. Componential intelligence: mentally processing information to solve a problem Psychometric instruments: tests that quantify psychological attributes such as personality traits or intellectual abilities To see how people differ from and compare with each other on psychological scales Intelligence tests: measures designed to assess an individuals level of cognitive capabilities compared to other people in a population Sir Francis Galton was the first person to systematically effort to measure intelligence He was convinced that intelligence and social pre-eminence were products of the evolutionary process of survival of the fittest Intelligence runs in the family Alfred Binet believed that a true measure of intelligence is an individuals performance on complex tasks of memory, judgement and comprehension. Noted that problem solving abilities increase with age Mental age (MA): average age at which children achieve a particular score A five year old child who can answer questions as a seven year old has a mental age off seven

David Wechler tried to circumvent the problem of language. The intelligence tests used early in the last century were linguistically and culturally biased towards native-born English speakers. He attempted to minimise these biases by: Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale, third edition (WAIS-III) Wechler Intelligence Scale for Children, fourth edition (WISC-IV)

Intellectual disability: refers to significantly below average general intellectual functioning (IQ less than 70). With deficits in adaptive functioning, that is first evident in childhood communication, living autonomously, interacting socially Teratogen: (alcohol is an example) a harmful environmental agent that can cause malformation or death of a foetus. Foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): mothers who seriously abuse alcohol during pregnancy may give birth of babies with malformations of the nose and eyes together with restricted intelligence Gifted: individuals at the other end of the bell shaped distribution of intelligence are classified as exceptionally talented. Definitions of giftedness depend on whatever skills or talents society labels as gifts Creativity: a quality related to giftedness the ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way It is moderately correlated with intelligence Divergent thinking: the ability to generate multiple possibilities in any given situation. Eg. Describing all the possible uses of a paper clip Savant syndrome: people who have low overall intelligence but an extraordinary talent in one particular realm of ability. The right cortex of the brain matures earlier than the left cortex. Males are more vulnerable Culture free test: the aim was to strip away items in which cultural difference could affect performance. Culture fair test: using only those items that would measure skills and knowledge common across cultures

Charles Spearman was the first to apply factor analysis to intelligence tests. He proposed: Two-factor theory of intelligence: distinguished two types of factors general and specific g-factor: general intelligence Spearman believed the g-factor explained why almost any two sets of items assessing intelligence functioning tend to correlate with one another. s-factors: According to Spearman, reveals specific abilities unique to certain tests or shared only by a subset of tests. Individuals vary in overall intellectual ability (g-factor), but some people are better at mathematical tasks and others are better at verbal tasks (s-factors) Gf-Gc theory: distinguishes two general intelligence factors fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence and seven factors that are more specific. Fluid intelligence: refers to intellectual capacities that have no specific content but are used in processing information and approaching novel problems, such as the ability to draw inferences, find analogies or recognise patterns Crystallised intelligence: refers to peoples store of knowledge, such as vocabulary and general world knowledge (generic memory) Knowledge base: the information stored in long-term memory. Cognitive strategies: essential for many everyday tasks from remembering grocery lists to calculating 15% holiday surcharge Emotional intelligence: the ability to read peoples emotions and use ones own emotional responses adaptively Analytical intelligence: is the type normally measured by IQ test and is needed for success in an academic setting. Creative intelligence: the ability to come up with new ideas and novel solutions to problems Practical intelligence: the ability to deal with everyday problems and find practical, commonsense solutions. Theory of multiple intelligences: identifies seven intelligences: 1. musical 2. Bodily/kinaesthetic (control over the body and movement that distinguishes great athletics) 3. Spatial (the use of mental maps) 4. Linguistic or verbal 5. Logical/ mathematical 6. Intrapersonal (self-understanding) 7. Interpersonal (social skills)

Topic 9 Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion