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CONTENT
No. Title Page

5.1

Soap and Detergent

5.2

Food Additives

5.3

Medicine

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SOAP AND DETERGENT

Introduction
Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove grease and dirt. There are two type of cleansing agents soaps and detergent. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by saponification.

Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogen) with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is non polar and is soluble in non polar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water.

The History of Soap Manufacturing

In the past, soap was made by mixing animal fats with alkaline wood ashes.

Large-scale commercial soapmaking accured in 1791 when a french chemist, Nicholas Leblanc patented a process for making soda ash or sodium carbonate from common salt. The process yielded large quantities of quality soda ash.

Twenty years later, Belgian chemist Ernest Solvary developed a process to further reduce the cost of obtaining soda ash, thereby reducing the cost of soap manufacturing.

Soap Preparation Process 3 NAZURAH ROSLAN

Soaps can be made from animal fats and vegetable oils. The animal fats most commonly used are fats from cows and goats. The vegetable oils often used are palm oil, olive oil and coconut oil. Soaps are prepared by hydrolyzing fats or oils under alkaline condition. The reaction is called saponification. This process involves boiling fats or oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution or concentrated potassium hydroxide solution to produce glycerol and the salts of fatty acids which are soaps.

General equation for saponifaction

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Sodium palmitate
1. The fats or oils are hydrolysed first to form glycerol and fatty acids. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture. 2. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result, precipitation of soap occurs. 3. The properties of soap depend on : a) The type of alkali used for saponification b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used. 4. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from potassium hydroxide are soft. 5. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) ae used for making soap.

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Detergent
1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals. Detergents are usually sodium salts of sulphuric acid. 2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on the detergent ion. a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a negatively charged ion. Negatively Example: R O SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate) charged ion b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a positively charged ion. Positively Example: R N (CH3)3+BRcharged ion

c) Non ionic detergents Example: R O CH2CH2OH

Preparation of detergents
1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps. Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.

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2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na+ . 3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH 2 , obtained from the cracking of petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule. b) Step 2 : Sulphonation Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid. c) Step 3 : Neutralisation Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent

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The cleansing of soap and detergent

The cleansing action of both soaps and detergents results from their ability to lower the surface tension of water, to emulsify oil or grease and to hold them in suspension in water.
1) The following explains the cleansing action of a soap or detergent on a piece of cloth with a greasy stain: a) When soap or detergent is added to water, it reduces the surface tension of water. Therefore, the surface of the cloth is wetted throughout. b) The hydrophobic part of the soap or detergent anion is soluble in the grease. The hydrophilic part is soluble in water.

c) Mechanical agitation during scrubbing helps to pull the grease free and also break the grease into small droplets

d) The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth due to the repulsion between the negative charges on their surface.

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2) The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding and structures. a) The ionic head (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily layer. b) The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oily layer. 3) Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil (a covalent molecult0 is insoluble in water. 4) Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease. a) The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent ions dissolves in water. b) The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions dissolves in the layer of grease. 5) The water is agitated slightly; the grease begins to be lifted off the surface. This cause by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the negatively charged heads. 6) On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface. 7) Emulsifying dirt in water a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils and grease. b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into smaller droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on another because they carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is suspended in the solution. c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried away. d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing the soap or detergent solution is stirred Property Soap Detergent
Cleaning power Ease of rinsing Less powerfull It is difficult to wash away all soap on clothes. The soap that remains leave and odour and spoils the fabric Slightly alkaline More powerfull Rinse out well from clothes

pH

Can be controlled to suit the cleaning task Can be modified to suit the cleaning task. For example, a detergent can be made specially for cleaning toilet bowls. Does not form scum with hard water

Molecular structure

Determined by the fatty acids found in the oil or fat used to produce soap

Formation of scum

Forms scum with hard water

Effectiveness Of Cleansing Action of Soap And Detergent.

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Food Additives
Uses of food additives
To make food last longer (to extend the shelf life) To make foods taste better and look better

Types of food additives Preservatives: sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate Antioxidant: ascorbic acid Flavoring: Monosodium glutamate(MSG), aspartame Stabilizer and thickener: gelatin and acacia gum Dye: azo compounds, triphenyl compounds

Effects on health Allergy: MSG Carcinogenic: NaNO Brain damage Hyperactivity

Functions of food additives Preservatives: to inhibit or prevent the growth of moulds, yeast and bacteria that spoil foods Antioxidants: to prevent spoilage of food due to oxidation by oxygen Flavorings agents: to enhance the taste of food Stabilizers and thickeners: to improve the texture of foods Coloring agents: to restore the color or to enhance the natural color

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Additives In Detergent and Their Function

Addictives Biological enzyme Whitening agent Optical whitener Example Amylases, proteases, cellulases Sodium perborate Fluorescent dyes Function To remove protein stains such as blood To convert stains into colourless substances To add brightness and whiteness to white fabrics To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent by softening the water To prevent the dirt particles removed from redepositing onto cleaned fabrics. To add to tha bulk of the detergents and enable it to be poured easily To control foaming in detergent To add fragrance to both detergent and fabrics

Builder

Sodium tripolyphosphate

Suspension agent

carboxymethylcellulose

Filler

Sodium sulphate, sodium silicate Silicones -

Foam control agents Fragrance

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Types of Food Additives and Their Functions.

There is a common misconception that processed foods automatically contain food additives. Foods like long-life milk, canned foods and frozen foods are all processed, yet none of them need extra chemicals. If you are unsure whether or not a product contains an additive, check the label. However, some listed ingredients may contain food additives without mentioning them on the label. For instance, margarine might be a listed ingredient and margarine contains food additives. The different types of food additive and their uses include: Anti-caking agents stop ingredients from becoming lumpy. Antioxidants prevent foods from oxidising, or going rancid. Artificial sweeteners increase the sweetness. Emulsifiers stop fats from clotting together. Food acids maintain the right acid level. Colours enhance or add colour. Humectants keep foods moist. Flavours add flavour. Flavour enhancers increase the power of a flavour. Foaming agents maintain uniform aeration of gases in foods. Mineral salts enhance texture and flavour. Preservatives stop microbes from multiplying and spoiling the food. Thickeners and vegetable gums enhance texture and consistency. Stabilisers and firming agents maintain even food dispersion. Flour treatment improves baking quality. A. Preservatives: Glazing agent improves appearance and can protect food. Gelling agents alter the texture of foods through gel formation. Benzoic acid and benzoates - are found in soft drinks, beer, Propellants help propel food from to extend shelf life and margarine and acidic foods. They are use a container. Raising agents increase the volume of food through the use of gases. protect food from fungi and bacteria.

Nitrites and nitrates - are found in processed meats, such as sausages, hot dogs, bacon, ham, and luncheon meats, smoked fish. They are used to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and bacteria; preserve color in meats and dried fruits. Sulfites - are found in dried fruits, shredded coconut, fruit based pie fillings. They are used to extend shelf life and protect food from fungi and bacteria.

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B. Antioxidants: Vitamin and minerals is important additive they help to prevent fats from turning rancid and also may protect against cancer, heart disease, and other diseases.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and ascorbates - are used in fruit products (juices, jams, and canned fruits), acidic foods, and fatty foods. Ascorbates prevent fruit juices from turning brown and fatty foods from becoming rancid. They also improve baking quality in wheat. BHA or BHT - are used to prevent fatty foods from turning rancid when exposed to oxygen. They are added in baked products, cereals, potato chips, and fats and oils. Tocopherols (vitamin E) - are used to prevent rancidity in fats and other damage to food due to exposure to oxygen. They are used in oils and shortenings.

C. Colorings: are used to make food more visually appealing.

Beta carotene, Caramel, Carrot oil, Citrus red # 1, Dehydrated beets, FD&C colors: Blue # 1, 2: Red # 3, 40; Yellow # 5, 6 - used in processed foods, especially sweets and products marketed for children, soft drinks, baked goods, frosting, jams, and margarine.

D. Flavor Enhancers: Improve the flavor of many canned or processed foods.

Dioctyl sodium-sulfosuccinate - used in processed foods. Disodium granulate - used in canned meats, meat based foods. Hydrolyzed vegetable - used in mixes, stock, processed meats. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) - used in Chinese food, dry mixes, stock cubes, and canned, processed, and frozen meats.

E. Emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners: Carrageenan, Cellulose, Glycerol, Guar gum, Gum Arabic, lecithin, pectins - is used to improve texture and consistency of processed foods by increasing smoothness, creaminess, and volume. Hold in moisture and prevent separation of oil and water. They are found insauces, soups, breads, baked goods, frozen desserts, ice cream, low-fat and artificial cream cheese, condiments, jams, jellies, chocolate, puddings, and milk shakes.

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The Effects of Food Addictive

1. Sodium Nitrate (also called Sodium Nitrite): This is a preservative, coloring, and flavoring commonly added to bacon, ham, hot dogs, luncheon meats, smoked fish, and corned beef. Studies have linked eating it to various types of cancer. 2. BHA and BHT: Butylated hydroxy anisole and butylated hydro zyttoluene are used to preserve common household foods. They are found in cereals, chewing gum, potato chips, and vegetable oils. They are oxidants, which form potentially cancer-causing reactive compounds in your body. 3. Propyl Gallate: Another preservative, often used in conjunction with BHA and BHT. It is sometimes found in meat products, chicken soup base, and chewing gum. Animals studies have suggested that it could be linked to cancer. 4. Mono sodium Glutamate (MSG) : MSG is an amino acid used as a flavor enhancer in soups, salad dressings, chips, frozen food, and restaurant food. It can cause headaches and nausea, and animal studies link it to damaged nerve cells in the brains of infant mice. 5. Trans Fats: Trans fats are proven to cause heart disease. Restaurant food, especially fast food chains, often serves foods laden with trans fats. 6. Aspartame: Aspartame, also known by the brand names Nutrasweet and Equal, is a sweetener found in so-called diet foods such as low-calorie desserts, gelatins, drink mixes, and soft drinks. It may cause cancer or neurological problems, such as dizziness or hallucinations. 7. Acesul fame-K: This is a relatively new artificial sweetener found in baked goods, chewing gum, and gelatin desserts. There is a general concern that testing on this product has been scant, and some studies show the additive may cause cancer in rats. 8. Food Colorings: Blue 1, 2; Red 3; Green 3; Yellow 6: Five food colorings still on the market are linked with cancer in animal testing. Blue 1 and 2, found in beverages, candy, baked goods and pet food, have been linked to cancer in mice. Red 3, used to dye cherries, fruit cocktail, candy, and baked goods, has been shown to cause thyroid tumors in rats. Green 3, added to candy and beverages, has been linked to bladder cancer. The widely used yellow 6, added to beverages, sausage, gelatin, baked goods, and candy, has been linked to tumors of the adrenal gland and kidney. 9. Olestra: Olestra, a synthetic fat found in some potato chip brands, can cause severe diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and gas. Olestra also inhibits healthy vitamin absorption from fat-soluble carotenoids that are found in fruits and vegetables. 10. Potassium Bromide: Potassium bromated is used as an additive to increase volume in some white flour, breads, and rolls. It is known to cause cancer in animals, and even small amounts in bread can create a risk for humans. 11. White Sugar: Watch out for foods with added sugars, such as baked goods, cereals, crackers, sauces and many other processed foods. It is unsafe for your health, and promotes bad nutrition. 12. Sodium Chloride: A dash of sodium chloride, more commonly known as salt, can bring flavor to your meal. But too much salt can be dangerous for your health, leading to high blood pressure, heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure.

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Personal advices

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MEDICINE
A medicine is a substances used to prevent or cure disease or to reduce pain and suffering due to illness. It can be classified into tradisional medicines and modern medicines.

Traditional Medicine Derived from plants and animals.

Some common medicinal plants and their function:

Plant Aloe vera Betel Bitter gourd Coconut Garlic Ginger Local name Lidah buaya Sireh Peria Kelapa Bawang putih Halia Uses Sap used to relieved pain from burns Leaves relieved sore eyes Fruit used to cure diabetes Young coconut water reduces fever Reduces infection and hypertension Reduces inflammation and improves blood circulation and digestion Roots maintain good health Leaves relieves headache and hair loss Cures pimples

Ginseng Hibiscus Turmeric

Ginseng Bunga Raya Kunyit

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Animal that are claimed to have medicinal properties: Medicinal Animal Sea cucumber (gamat) Centipede Ant Functions To treat Japanese encephalitis and hole in the heart. To threat lockjaw and convulsion. To treat hepatitis B

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Modern Medicine Made by scientists in laboratories and are based on substances found in nature

Type of modern medicine Analgesics-medicines used to relieve pain without causing numbness of affecting consciousness.

Function

Examples

Do not treat the cause of the pain but merely provide enough relief to the patients to allow them to carry out their daily routine. Treat infections caused by bacteria. They will not cure infections caused by viruses. Do not cure mental illness but can reduce many of the symptoms of mental illness.

Aspirin, paracetamol

Antibiotics-used to kill or slow down the growth of bacteria.

Penicillin, streptomycin

Psychotherapeutic medicines- used to alter abnormal thinking, feelings or behavior.

Stimulants, antidepressants, antipsychotic

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Advice On The Correct Usage Of Modern And Traditional Medicines

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Drug abuse
Drug abuse, also called substance abuse or chemical abuse, is a disorder that is characterized by a destructive pattern of using a substance that leads to significant problems or distress. It affects more than 7% of people at some point in their lives. Teens are increasingly engaging in prescription drug abuse, particularly narcotics (which are prescribed to relieve severe pain), and stimulant medications, which treat conditions like attention deficit disorder.

Types of Drugs Are Commonly Abused

Virtually any substance whose ingestion can result in a euphoric ("high") feeling can be abused. While many are aware of the abuse of legal substances like alcohol or illegal drugs likemarijuana (in most states) andcocaine, less well known is the fact that inhalants like household cleaners are some of the most commonly abused substances. The following are many of the drugs and types of drugs that are commonly abused and/or result in dependence:

Alcohol: Although legal, alcohol is a toxic substance, particularly to a developing fetus when a mother consumes this drug during pregnancy.

Amphetamines: This group of drugs comes in many forms, from prescription medications like methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta) anddextroamphetamine and amphetamine (Adderall) to illegally manufactured drugs like methamphetamine ("meth"). Overdose of any of these substances can result in seizure and death. Anabolic steroids: A group of substances abused by bodybuilders and other athletes, this group of drugs can lead to terrible psychological effects like aggression and paranoia, as well as devastating long-term physical effects like infertility and organ failure.

Caffeine: While it is consumed by many, coffee, tea and soda drinkers, when consumed in excess this substance can produce palpitations,insomnia, tremors and significant anxiety.

Cannabis: More commonly called marijuana, the scientific name for cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In addition to the negative effects the drug itself can produce (for example, infertility, paranoia, lack of motivation), the fact that it is commonly mixed ("cut") with other substances so drug dealers can make more money selling the diluted substance or expose the user to more addictive drugs exposes the marijuana user to the dangers associated with those added substances. Examples of ingredients that marijuana is commonly cut with include baby powder, oregano, embalming fluid, PCP, opiates, and cocaine.

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Cocaine: A drug that tends to stimulate the nervous system, cocaine can be snorted in powder form, smoked when in the form of rocks (crack cocaine), or injected when made into a liquid.

Ecstasy: Also called MDMA to denote its chemical composition (methylenedioxymethamphetamine), this drug tends to create a sense of euphoria and an expansive love or desire to nurture others. In overdose, it can increase body temperature to the point of being fatal.

Hallucinogens: Examples include LSD and mescaline, as well as so-called naturally occurring hallucinogens like certain mushrooms, these drugs can be dangerous in their ability to alter the perceptions of the user. For example, a person who is intoxicated with a hallucinogen may perceive danger where there is none and to think that situations that are truly dangerous are not. Those misperceptions can result in dangerous behaviors (like jumping out of a window because the individual thinks they are riding on an elephant that can fly).

Inhalants: One of the most commonly abused group of substances due to its accessibility, inhalants are usually contained in household cleaners, like ammonia, bleach, and other substances that emit fumes. Brain damage, even to the point of death, can result from using an inhalant just once or over the course of time, depending on the individual. Nicotine: The addictive substance found in cigarettes, nicotine is actually one of the most habitforming substances that exists. In fact, nicotine addiction is often compared to the intense addictiveness associated with opiates like heroin. Opiates: This group is also called narcotics and includes drugs like heroine, codeine, Vicodin, Percocet, and Percodan. This group of substances sharply decrease the functioning of the nervous system. The lethality of opiates is often the result of the abuser having to use increasingly higher amounts to achieve the same level of intoxication, ultimately to the point that the dose needed to get high is the same as the dose that is lethal for that individual by halting the person's breathing (respiratory arrest). Phencyclidine: Commonly referred to as PCP, this drug can cause the user to feel extremely paranoid, become quite aggressive and to have an unusual amount of physical strength. This can make the individual quite dangerous to others.

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Causes Drug Abuse And Addiction

Reasons why teenagers take drugs.

Enjoyment Despite all the concerns about illicit drug use and the attendant lifestyle by young people, it is probably still the case that the lives of most young people are centred on school, home and employment and that most drug use is restricted to the use of tobacco and alcohol They may adopt the demeanour, fashion and slang of a particular subculture including the occasional or experimental use of illegal drugs without necessarily adopting the lifestyle. Environment Many young people live in communities which suffer from multiple deprivation, with high unemployment, low quality housing where the surrounding infra-structure of local services is fractured and poorly resourced. In such communities drug supply and use often thrive as an alternative economy often controlled by powerful criminal groups. As well as any use that might be associated with the stress and boredom of living in such communities, young people with poor job prospects recognise the financial advantages and the status achievable through the business of small scale supply of drugs Curiosity Most young people are naturally curious and want to experiment with different experiences. For some, drugs are a good conversation point, they are interesting to talk about and fascinate everyone. Natural rebellion Whether or not part of any particular subset of youth culture, young people like to be exclusive, own something that is personal to themselves and consciously or unconsciously drug use may act as a means of defiance to provoke adults into a reaction. Promotion and availability There is considerable pressure to use legal substances alcohol and pain- relieving drugs are regularly advertised on television. The advertising of tobacco products is now banned on television, but recent research from Strathclyde University published by the Cancer Research Campaign concluded that cigarette advertising does encourage young people to start smoking and reinforces the habit among existing smokers.

Physical and Psychological Effects of Drug Abuse and Addiction

While the specific physical and psychological effects of drug abuse and addiction tend to vary based on the particular substance involved, the general effects of abuse or addiction to any drug can be devastating. Psychologically, intoxication with or withdrawal from a substance can cause everything from euphoria as with alcohol, Ecstasy, or inhalant intoxication to paranoia with marijuana or steroid intoxication, to severe depression or suicidal thoughts with cocaine or amphetamine withdrawal.

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Treatment For Drug Addiction

An unfortunate fact about the treatment of drug addiction is that it remains largely unutilized by most sufferers of this condition. Facts about the use of drug treatment include that less than 10% of people with a substance-abuse disorder and less than 40% of those with a substance-dependence disorder seek treatment. Those statistics do not seem to be associated with socioeconomic or other demographic traits but do seem to be associated with the presence of other mental-health problems (co-morbidity). The primary goals of drug-abuse or addiction treatment (also called recovery) are abstinence, relapse prevention, and rehabilitation. During the initial stage of abstinence, an individual who suffers from chemical dependency may need help avoiding or lessening the effects of withdrawal. That process is called detoxification or "detox." That aspect of treatment is usually performed in a hospital or other inpatient setting, where medications used to lessen withdrawal symptoms and frequent medical monitoring can be provided. The medications used for detox are determined by the substance the individual is dependent upon. For example, people with alcohol dependence might receive medications like anti-anxiety or blood pressure medications to decrease palpitations and blood pressure, or seizure medications to prevent possible seizures during the detoxification process. For many drugs of abuse, the detox process is the most difficult aspect of coping with the physical symptoms of addiction and tends to last days to a few weeks. Medications that are sometimes used to help addicted individuals abstain from drug use long term also depends on the specific drug of addiction Also important in the treatment of addiction is helping the parents, other family members, and friends of the addicted person refrain from supporting addictive behaviors (codependency). Whether providing financial support, making excuses or failing to acknowledge the addictive behaviors of the addict, discouraging such codependency of loved ones is a key component to the recovery of the affected individual. A focus on the addicted person's role in the family becomes perhaps even more acute when that person is a child or teenager, given that minors come within the context of a family in nearly every instance. Chemical dependency treatment for children and adolescents is further different from that in adults by the younger addict's tendency to need help completing their education and achieving higher education or job training compared to addicts who may have completed those parts of their lives before developing the addiction.

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