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Psych 221 Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 - Introducing Social Psychology What Is Social Psychology? the scientific study of the way in which peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others What is Social Influence? Rewards reinforce the desire to continue behavior, punishments weaken the desire to continue behavior. Life is a series of plus and minus events that teach us how to behave What are Construals? The way a person perceives, comprehends, and interprets a social situation Basic Human Motives The Self-Esteem Approach: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves - Justifying past behavior (distort past memories) - Suffering and self-justification (voluntarily undergoing pain/embarrassment justified by inflating rewards. Ie my frat is the best The Social Cognition Approach: The Need to Be Accurate - People try to understand and predict their social world - Expectation can interfere (self-fulfilling prophecy) Chapter 2 - Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior Archival Analysis examine accumulated documents of culture Limits of the Observational Method some behaviors hard to observe, observer cant always Unobtrusive, consistency in coding is hard to get The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior Surveys ask people about their attitudes/behaviors Limits of the Correlational Method: Correlation Does Not Equal Causation even if A and B Are perfectly correlated, we cannot determine their causal relationship The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions Independent and Dependent Variables: IV = what the researcher manipulates, DV = what the researcher measures to see if the change in IV had any effect Internal Validity in Experiments keep all variables constant except for the IV and see the influence (have a random assignment and control group) [between = 1 set, within = all conditions] External Validity in Experiments the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations or other people [mundane realism = how similar to real-life, psych realism = how similar psych processes in experiment are to psych processes in real life, replicate in diff settings] Basic Versus Applied Research Chapter 3 - Social Cognition: How We Think about the Social World Automatic Thinking Schemas mental models of some aspect of the social world that can influence the use and/or impact of info related to that part of the social world Mental Strategies and Shortcuts = heuristics mental shortcuts used to increase cognitive efficiency (quick decisions Controlled Thinking conscious, intentional, voluntary, effortful. A way of correction automatic thinking. Automatic believing, controlled unbelieving (racial profiling by way of police stopping certain people Diallo shot bc of race ironic processing and thought suppression = desire to avoid thinking about something) Chapter 4 - Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People Nonverbal Behavior

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Facial Expressions of Emotion anger fear disgust surprise happy sad Implicit Personality Theories: Filling In the Blanks by grouping personality traits together Culture and Implicit Personality Theories Causal Attribution The Nature of the Attribution Process - why? The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions attribute to character = internal, attribute to situation = external. High consensus, distinctiveness, consistency = external. Low low high = internal The Correspondence Bias: People as Personality Psychologists the tendency to infer that peoples behavior reflects their dispositions The Actor/Observer Difference people more apt to see others behavior as dispositionally caused than their own. Therefore, we commit the FAE MORE when explaining OTHER peoples behavior than our own Self-Serving Attributions my own success is due to internal dispositional factors, but my failures are due to external, situational factors Chapter 5 - The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context Self-Knowledge Cultural Differences in Defining the Self - independent (west) = define self in terms of ones own thoughts feelings and actions - interdependent (east) = define self in terms of ones relationships w other people and their thoughts feelings and actions Gender Differences in Defining the Self - names Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection how accurately can ppl report the causes of their feelings, judgements, and behaviors (predict factors that correlate w mood). People dont like have to list reasons for why they feel a certain way (dating example) Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Bems Self Perception Theory when our own attitudes or feelings are uncertain, we infer them by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs. Using Other People to Know Ourselves Chapter 6 - The Need to Justify Our Actions Maintaining a Stable, Positive Self-Image The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance dissonance is caused by performing an action that is discrepant from ones self-concept Rational Behavior (best decision / makes most sense) versus Rationalizing Behavior (making excuses) Justifying Your Effort go to a lot of effort to get something and its not good, that suggests youre not smart, so youre likely to believe you like the thing that you worked hard to get The Psychology of Insufficient Justification low justification = high dissonance - alibi for friend Chapter 7 - Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings Where Do Attitudes Come From? Affect (emotion feeligns values), cognition (beliefs), behavior Explicit (known) versus Implicit (unaware or dont know why) Attitudes Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change Resisting Persuasive Messages Attitude Inoculation - refers to the process of making people immune to attempts to change their

attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position. It is

3 exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.attitude inoculation
Resisting Peer Pressure When Persuasion Attempts Boomerang: Reactance Theory - When people feel that their

freedom to choose an action is threatened, they get an unpleasant feeling called 'reactance'
The Power of Advertising How Advertising Works engage self esteem Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? doesnt work Chapter 8 - Conformity: Influencing Behavior Informational Social Influence: The Need To Know Whats Right Normative Social Influence: The Need To Be Accepted Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line Judgment Studies The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? To be liked and accepted. Public compliance without private acceptance Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many consistency over time, consistent unanimity among members of minority, appear not to be driven by self-interest The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms - injunctive = perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapp by others - descriptive = perceptions of how ppl actually behave given situations Majorities cause public compliance bc of normative influence, minorities prive acceptance bc of information social influence Obedience To Authority obedience is compliance in response to a specific command The Role of Normative Social Influence milgram study The Role of Informational Social Influence Chapter 9 - Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups What is A Group? 3+ Groups and Individuals Behavior Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us do better on simple, worse on complex (playing pool) Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us worse on simple tasks, better on complex (ex group projects) Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd feelings of anonymity and reduced individuality, resulting in the loosening of normal constraints on behavior. Increases impulsive and deviant acts. Group Decisions: are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving fail to pay attention to expert. Failure to share unique information. Latch onto what everyone knows Conflict and Cooperation Zero Sum = one winner, one loser. Mixed motive = both can win, both can lose, one can win and one can lose Social Dilemmas tit for tat, cooperate at first, then respond same way as opponent did previous trial Using Threats to Resolve Conflict not if they lead to conflict spirals, where hurting the other person is more important that their own person gain Chapter 10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships What Causes Attraction? exposure

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The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends. Familiarity leads to liking Similarity not tooo too similar though. Opposites dont attract Reciprocal Liking when we think someone likes us, we will like them more. Self-fulfilling prophecy Physical Attractiveness and Liking beauty leads to liking. Attractiveness matters, especially w a sever act Theories of Interpersonal Attraction: Social Exchange and Equity Close Relationships Defining Love Culture and Love Love and Relationships Evolution and Love: Choosing a Mate Chapter 11 - Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping increase reciprocated helping, relieve personal distress of the witness, help us to gain social approval and self worth Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping understanding anothers experience from their point of view. Help even if no reward Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior (good and bad moods help) Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When will People Help? The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect more ppl who witness emergency, less likely any of them will help The Nature of the Relationship: Communal (primary concern is w welfare of others in the relationship) versus Exchange (primary concern is with getting what they deserve) Relationships How can Helping be Increased? Increasing the Likelihood that Bystanders Will Intervene teach them Chapter 12 - Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? What is Aggression? Intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain Is Aggression Inborn or Learned? learned Neural and Chemical Influences on Aggression - serotonin chemical produced in midbrain that inhibits impulsive aggression - testosterone too much = increased aggression Gender and Aggression Alcohol and Aggression Social Situations and Aggression Frustration and Aggression having less than you deserve causes aggression Aggressive Objects as Cues holding a gun or holding a badminton racket Violence in the Media: TV, Movies, and Video Games How to Reduce Aggression Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggressive Behavior? For children threat of mild punishment administered swiftly for adults, deterrence if sever certain and swift Catharsis and Aggression performing an aggressive act or watching others engage in it relieves built up aggressive energy doesnt reduce it though

Chapter 13 - Prejudice: Causes and Cures Prejudice: The Ubiquitous Prejudice: the ubiquitous Social Phenomenon Prejudice and Self-Esteem Prejudice Defined Stereotypes: The Cognitive Component thoughts a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group Discrimination: The Behavioral Component overt directed toward a person simply bc of presumed group membership What Causes Prejudice? The Way We Think: Social Cognition a hostile or negative attitude toward a group of distinguishable people, based on their membership in the group Prejudice and Economic Competition: Realistic Conflict Theory limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice How Can Prejudice be Reduced? The Contact Hypothesis When Contact Reduces Prejudice: Six Conditions - mutual interdependence - a common goal - equal status - informal, one on one contact - contacts with several members of outgroup - social norms of equality