Gene: Today, a gene is recognized as a region of DNA that encodes a specific protein or particular type of RNA. Leland Hartwell.

Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.14

Alleles: Alternative forms of a single gene. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. G-1

Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus of a cell. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin

Chromosomes: The DNA molecules carrying the genes are assembled into chromosomes: organelles that package and manage the storage, duplication, expression, and evolution of DNA. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.2. Genome: The sum total of genetic information in a particular cell or organism.The human (Homo sapiens) genome is stored on 23 chromosome pairs and in the small mitochondrial DNA.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genome Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. G-9. RNA: Like DNA, RNA has the capacity to store, replicate, mutate, and express information; like proteins, RNA can fold in three dimensions to produce molecules capable of catalysing the chemistry of life. RNA molecules, however, are intrinsically unstable. Thus it is probable that the more stable DNA took over the linear information storage and replication functions of RNA, while proteins, with their far greater capacity for diversity, pre-empted the functions derived from RNAs three-dimensional folding. With this division of labour, RNA became an intermediary in converting the information in DNA into the sequence of amino acids in protein. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.5 Exons and Introns: The protein-coding region of most genes is subdivided into as many as 10 or more small pieces (called exons), separated by DNA that does not code for protein (called introns). P.6 In eukaryotes, separated exons composing a single gene allow potential rearrangements and rapid diversification. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.7.

DNA duplication: Duplication of genes has allowed divergence of copies and the potential for evolution of new functions. P.7 Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.7. Heredity: the ways genes transmit physiological, anatomical, and behavioural traits from parents to offspring. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.13. Pure breeding lines: pure-breeding lines produce offspring carrying specific parental traits that remain constant from generation to generation. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.17.

Antagonistic pairs: Mendel called constant but mutually exclusive traits antagonistic pairs. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.17. [Note: Once Mendel had isolated pure-breeding lines for several sets of characteristics, he carried out a series of matings between individuals that differed in only one trait. P.19]

Mendels proposition: Mendel proposed that each individual possess two copies of each unit of inheritance. Today, we call these units of inheritance genes. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.20 Mendels law of segregation: Mendel proposed that the two copies of each gene in the parent separate (or segregate) so that each gamete receives only one allele for each trait. That is, two alleles for each gene separate (segregate) during gamete formation, and then unites at random, one from each parent, at fertilization. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition P.21 Law of independent assortment: The independent assortment of gene pairs during gamete formation states that the presence of a particular allele of one gene provides no information whatsoever about the allele of the second gene. P.25 That is, during gamete formation, different pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.26

Whether pure-breeding or hybrid? We can observe the appearance of the next generation. P.24 And for species that do not self-fertilize, we have to use testcrosses. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition P.24

Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a given gene. Reece Campbell, Biology, 9th edition. G-17 Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a given gene. Reece Campbell, Biology, 9th edition. G-17

Hybrid: Offspring that results from the mating of individuals from two different species or from two true-breeding varieties of the same species. Reece Campbell, Biology, 9th edition. G-17

Genotype The term genotype may be used in two ways: 1. When the term genotype is used to refer to a gene, it is the particular pair of alleles that the individual happens to possess for that gene. 2. Genotype may also be used to refer to the entire set of all alleles that the individual happens to possess. Human genes and genomes by Leon Rosenberg, Diane Rosenberg.1st edition 2012. P.59 http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/5.Geno.Pheno.HTML http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/GENETIC.HTM

Trait = an observable characteristic Phenotype = trait value (the measured value of the trait)

[Note: The word phenotype and trait are used interexchangebly by some authors.] http://babcock.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/de/en/de_14.en.pdf http://www.mesacc.edu/~grens94401/MCC%20Website/BIO240/Course%20Notes/Mendel %20notes%20Chap%2011.pdf Adaptive Genetic Variation in the Wild By Timothy A. Mousseau. P.96 Genetics of Diabetes Mellitus p.8 Genetics: A conceptual approach. 2nd edition. Benjamin A. Pierce. G-14 Cross: The deliberate mating of two parental types of organisms in genetic analysis. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21878/ Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. G-5

Monohyrbid Cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in one trait of particular interest. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. G-14 Dihybrid Cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in two traits of particular interest. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihybrid_cross Genetics: A conceptual approach. 2nd edition. Benjamin A. Pierce. G-5 first filial (F 1 ) generation progeny of the parental generation in a controlled series of crosses. single gene trait (Mendelian trait)- Trait controlled by a single gene. Polygenic trait: a trait controlled by multiple genes. Multifactorial: Both Mendelian and polygenic traits can also be multifactorial, which means they are influenced by the environment (multifactorial traits are also called complex traits). Pure polygenic traitsthose not influenced by the environmentare very rare. Testcrosses: Testcross can be used to determine if an individual exhibiting a dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous for that trait. It is a mating in which an individual with genotype Y- mates with an individual with genotype yy. If the dominant phenotype in question derives from a homozygous YY genotype, all the offspring of the testcross will show the dominant phenotype. But if the dominant phenotype in question derives from a heterozygous Yy genotype, then of the progency is expected to show a different phenotype (recessive). Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition P.24

Single-Gene Traits: Although many human traits clearly run in families, most do not show a simple Mendelian pattern of inheritance. This is because a lot of human traits are influenced by more than one gene. In contrast, single-gene traits in people usually involve an abnormality that is disabling or life threatening. Examples are the progressive mental retardation and other neurological damage of Huntington disease and the clogged lungs and potential respiratory failure of cystic fribrosis. P.30 Traits produced by complex interactions between genes and between genes and the environment, extended rather than contradicted Mendels laws of inheritance. p.35 If the traits under analysis behaved as predicted by Mendels laws (i.e. Mendels 3:1 phenotypic ratio), then they were assumed to be determined by a single gene with alternative dominant and recessive alleles. Many traits, however, did not behave in this way. For some, no definitive dominance and recessiveness could be observed. Other traits turned out to be multifactorial, that is, determined by two or more genes, or by the interaction of genes with the environment. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition P.43

Pedigree: A family history, known as pedigree, is an orderly diagram of a familys relevant genetic features. P.31 Mode of inheritance from pedigree: To reach a conclusion about the mode of inheritance of a family trait (dominant/recessive), geneticists must use a pedigree that supplies sufficient information. Several kinds of additional information could help resolve this uncertainty. Human geneticists would particularly want to know the frequency at which the trait in question is found in the population from which the family came. If the trait is rare in the population, then the allele giving rise to the trait should also be rare, and the most likely hypothesis would require that the fewest genetically unrelated people carry the allele. p.31

Vertical pattern of inheritance: Vertical pattern of inheritance in where everyone who develops the disease has at least one parent who shows the trait. If you trace back through the ancestors of any affected individual, you would see at least one affected person in each generation, giving a continuous line of family members with the disease. When a disease is rare in the population as a whole, a vertical pattern is strong evidence that a dominant allele causes the trait. The alternative would require that many unrelated people carry a rare recessive allele. p.32 [Note: In tracking a dominant allele through a pedigree, you can view every mating between an affected and an unaffected partner as analogous to a testcross. P.33] [Note: Unlike Huntington disease, most confirmed single-gene traits in humans are recessive. This is because, with the exception of late-onset traits, deleterious dominant traits are unlikely to be transmitted to the next generation. P.34] Horizontal pattern of inheritance: The parents, grandparents, and greatgrandparents of children born with CF do not themselves manifest the disease, while several brothers and sisters in a single generation may. A horizontal pedigree pattern is a strong indication that the trait is recessive. P.34

Incomplete dominance: Incomplete dominance is one in which the hybrid does not resemble either pure-breeding parent. F1 hybrids that differ from both parents often express a phenotype that is intermediate between those of the pure-breeding parents. Thus, with incomplete dominance, neither parental allele is dominant or recessive to the other; both contribute to the F1 phenotype. P.44 Codominance: When both traits show up equally in the heterozygotes phenotype, the alleles are termed codominant. P.46 A gene may have more than two alleles: Mendel analysed either-or traits controlled by genes with two alternative alleles, but for many traits, there are more than two alternatives. Eg. If a person with blood type A mates with a person with blood type B, it is possible in some cases for the couple to have a child that is neither A nor B nor AB, but a fourth blood type called O. The reason? The gene for the ABO blood types has three alleles: IA, I B, and i. Alleles IA gives rise to blood type A by specifying an enzyme that adds sugar A (antigen A to the surface of the blood cells), IB result in blood type B by specifying an enzyme that adds sugar B; i does not produce a functional sugar-adding enzyme. Alleles IA and IB are both dominant to I, and blood type O is therefore a result of homozygosity for allele i. p.47

Matching ABO blood types is a prerequisite of successful blood transfusions, because people make antibodies to foreign blood cell molecules. A person whose cells carry only antigen A, produces antiB antibodies; A person whose cells carry only antigen B, produces anti-A antibodies; and O individuals blood cells carries no antigens, thus he/she produces both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. As a result, people with blood type O have historically been known as universal donors because their red blood cells carry no surface antigens. In contrast, people with blood type AB are considered universal recipients, because they make neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. These antibodies cause coagulation of cells displaying the foreign antigens. P.47 Note that an allele is not inherently dominant or recessive; its dominance or recessiveness is always relative to a second allele. In other words, dominance relations are unique to a par of alleles. In our example, IA is completely dominant to i, but it is codominant with IB. p.47 Histocompatibility in Humans: In some multiple allelic series, each allele is codominant with every other allele, and every distinct genotype therefore produces a distinct phenotype. This happens particularly with traits defined at the molecular level. An extreme example is the group of three major genes that encode a family of related cell surface molecules in humans and other mammals known as histocompatibility antigens. Carried by all of the bodys cells except the red blood cells and sperm, histocompatibility antigens play a critical role in faciliatating a proper immune response that destroys intruders (viral or bacterial, for example) while leaving the bodys own tissues intact. Because each of the three major histocompatibility genes (call HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C in humans) has between 20 and 100 alleles, the number of possible allelic combinations creates a powerful potential for the phenotypic variation of cell surface molecules. P.48 49 Mutations are the source of new alleles: How do multiple alleles of an allelic series arise? The answer is that chance alterations of the genetic material, known as mutations, arise spontaneously in nature. Once they occur in gamete-producing cells, they are faithfully inherited. Mutations that have phenotypic consequences can be counted, and such counting reveals that they occur at low frequency. The frequency of gametes carrying a mutation in a particular gene varies anywhere from 1 in 10000 to 1 in 1000000. This range exists because different genes have different mutation rates. P.49 Allele frequency and wild-type allele: Each allele of the gene occurs for a percentage of the total number of gene copies, and that percentage is known as the allele frequency. The most common allele in a population is usually called the wild-type allele, often designated by a superscript plus sign (+). A rare allele in the same population is considered a mutant allele. (A mutation is a newly arisen mutant allele) p.49 A gene with only one common wild-type is monomorphic. P.49 In contrast, some genes have more than one common allele, which makes them polymorphic. For example, in the ABO blood type system, all three alleles IA, IB, and i have appreciable frequencies in most human populations. Although all three of these alleles can be considered to be wild-type, geneticists instead usually refer to the high-frequency alleles of a polymorphic gene as common variants. P.50

One gene may contribute to several characteristics: Mendel derived his laws from studies in which one gene determined one trait; but, always the careful observer, he himself noted possible departures. In listing the traits selected for his pea experiments, he remarked that specific seed coat colors are always associated with specific flower of colors. P.51 The phenonmenon of a single gene determining a number of distinct and seemingly unrelated characteristics is known as pleiotropy. Because geneticists now know that each gene determines a specific protein and that each protein can have a cascade of effects on an organism, we can understand how pleiotropy arises. P.51 Because most proteins acts in a variety of tissues and influence multiple biochemical processes, mutations in almost any one gene may have pleiotropic effects. P.51

Sickle-Cell Disease: Sickle-cell disease is the result of a faulty haemoglobin molecule. Hemoglobin is composed of two types of polypeptide chains, alpha globin and beta globin, each specified by a different gene: Hb for globin and Hb for globin. Normal red blood cells are packed full of millions upon millions of haemoglobin molecules, each of which picks up oxygen in the lungs and transports it to all the bodys tissues. P.53 The -globin gene has a normal wild-type allele (HbA) that gives rise to fully functional globin, as well as close to 400 mutant alleles that have been identified so far. Some of these mutant alleles result in the production of haemoglobin that carries oxygen only inefficiently. Other mutant alleles prevent the production of globin, causing haemolytic (blood-destroying) disease called thalassemia. Here, we discuss the most common mutant allele of the -globin gene, HbS. which specifies an abnormal polypeptide that causes sickling of the red blood cells. P.53 The HbS allele of the -globin gene affects more than one trait. Hemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells of homozygous HbS HbS individuals undergo an aberrant transformation after releasing their oxygen. Instead of remaining soluble in the cytoplasm, they aggregate to form long fibers that deform the red blood cell from a normal biconcave disk to a sickle shape. The deformed cells clog the small blood vessels, reducing oxygen flow to the tissues and giving rise to muscle cramps, shortness of breath, and fatigue. The sickled cells are also very fragile and easily broken. Consumption of gragmented cells by phagocytic white blood cells leads to a low red blood count, a condition called anemia. P.53 -54

People who are homozygous for the recessive HbSoften develop heart failure because of stress on the circulatory system. Many sickle-cell sufferers die in childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood. P.54 Homologous Chromosomes (homologs): Chromosomes that match in size, shape, and banding are called homologous chromosomes. The two homologs of each pair contain the same set of genes, although for some genes, they may carry different alleles. The differences between alleles occur at the molecular level and dont show up in the microscope. P.82 In humans, there are 46 chromosomes arranged in 22 matching pairs of chromosomes and one nonmatching pair. The 44 chromosomes in matching pairs are known as autosomes. The two unmatched chromosomes (male karyotype) are called sex chromosomes. P.82 Down Syndrome Down syndrome was the first human genetic disorder attributable not to a gene mutation but to an abnormal number of chromosomes. Children born with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes in each cell nucleus because they carry three, instead of the normal pair, of a very small chromosome referred to as number 21. The aberrant genotype, known as trisomy 21, gives rise to an abnormal phenotype, including a wide skull that is flatter than normal at the back, an unusually large tongue, learning disabilities caused by the abnormal development of the hippocampus and other parts of the brain, and a propensity to respiratory infections as well as heart disorders, rapid aging, and leukemia. The proper development depends not just on what type of genetic material is present but also on how much of it there is. P.79 Modern methods of DNA analysis can reveal differences between the maternally and paternally derived chromosomes of a homologous pair, and can thus track the origin of the extra chromosome 21 that causes Down syndrome in individual patients. In 80% of cases, the third chromosome 21 comes from the egg; in 20%, from the sperm. P.82

Diploid: zygotes and other cells carrying two matching sets of chromosomes are described as diploid Haploid: cells that carry only a single set of chromosomes are called haploid.

{Note: The number of chromosomes in a normal haploid cell is designated by the shorthand symbol n; the number of chromosomes in a normal diploid cell is then 2n.}

Kinetochore: kinetochore is a protein structure on the chromatids. It assembles on the centromere and links the chromosome to microtubule. Kinetochore has two regions: (1) an inner kinetochore, which is tightly associated with the centromere DNA. (2) an outer kinetochore, which interacts with microtubules; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetochore

Centromere: Constricted region of the chromosome which holds sister chromatids together. It is also the site where the kinetochore forms that captures microtubules from the mitotic spindle. Molecular biology of the Cell 5th edition. Alberts. G-7 Banding Patterns Cells in metaphase can be fixed and stained with one of several dyes that highlight the chromosomes and accentuate the centromeres. The dyes also produce characteristic banding patterns made up of lighter and darker regions. Homologous chromosomes show same banding patterns. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.82 The banding patterns lend each chromosome a distinctive appearance so the 22 pairs of human nonsex chromosomes and the X and Y chromosomes can be identified and distinguished without ambiguity. Banding also permits the recognition of chromosome deletions (lost segments), chromosome duplications (surplus segments) and other types of structural rearrangements of chromosomes. http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=15921

Cell Cycle Interphase (1) Gap 1: last from birth of the new cell to the onset of DNA synthesis (chromosome replication). During this time, the cell achieves most of its growth by using the information from its genes to make and assemble the materials it needs to function normally. Also, the cell also synthesizes proteins and enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those needed for DNA replication. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.86 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle#Interphase

(2) Synthesis: S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. During replication, each chromosome doubles to produce two identical sister chromatids. The two sister chromatids remain joined to each other at the centromere. [Note that this joined structure is considered a single chromosome as long as the connection between sister chromatids is maintained. ) Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle#Interphase

(3) Gap 2: The interval between the completion of chromosome replication and the beginning of mitosis. During this time, the cell may grow (usually less than during G 1 ); it also synthesizes proteins that are essential to the subsequent steps of mitosis itself. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87

Note: In addition, during interphase an array of fine microtubules crucial for many interphase processes becomes visible outside the nucleus. The microtubules radiate out into the cytoplasm from a single organizing center known as the centrosome , usually located near the nuclear envelope. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87 Note: During the S and G 2 stages of interphase, the centrosomes replicate, producing two centrosomes that remain in extremely close proximity. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87 Some sources suggest that the initiation of centrosome duplication occurs near the G1/S boundary. http://www.nature.com/onc/journal/v21/n40/full/1205771a.html www.molbiolcell.org/content/15/12/5219.full Note: During all of interphase, the cell nucleus remains intact, and the chromosomes are indistinguishable aggregates of chromatin. Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87

During all three subphases, a cell that will eventually divide grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. However, chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase. Reece Campbell, Biology, 9th edition. P.231 Mitosis i. Prophase: the gradual emergence, or condensation , of individual chromosomes from the undifferentiated mass of chromatin marks the beginning of mitosis. Several important processes that characterize prophase occur outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. The centrosomes, which replicated during interphase, now move apart and become clearly distinguishable as two separate entities in the light microscope. At the same time, the interphase scaffolding of long, stable microtubules disappears and is replaced by a set of dynamic microtubules that rapidly grow from and shrink back toward their centrosomal organizing centers. The centrosomes continue to move apart, migrating around the nuclear envelope toward opposite ends of the nucleus, apparently propelled by forces exerted between interdigitated microtubules extending from both centrosomes.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophase
ii. Prometaphase: This phase begins with the breakdown of the nuclear envelope, which allows microtubules extending from the two centrosomes to invade the nucleus. Chromosomes attach to these microtubules through the kinetochore. In the early part of prometaphase, for each chromosome, one chromatids kinetochore is attached to a microtubule, but the sister chromatids kinetochore remains unattached. Near the end of prometaphase, the kinetochore of each chromosomes previously unattached sister chromatid now associates with microtubules extending from the opposite centrosome.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87, 89

Note: Experimental manipulation has shown that if both kinetochores become attached to microtubules from the same pole, the configuration is unstable; one of the kinetochores will repeatedly detach from the spindle until it associates with microtubules from the other pole. The attachment of sister chromatids to opposite spindle poles is the only stable arrangement.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.89

Note: During prometaphase, three different types of microtubule fibers together form the mitotic spindle ; all of these microtubules originate from the centrosomes, which function as the two poles of the spindle apparatus. Microtubules that extend between a centrosome and the kinetochore of a chromatid are called kinetochore microtubules , or centromeric fibers . Microtubules from each centrosome that are directed toward the middle of the cell are polar microtubules ; polar microtubules originating in opposite centrosomes interdigitate near the cells equator. Finally, there are short astral microtubules that extend out from the centrosome toward the cells periphery

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.87 {Note: During interphase in animal cells, the single centrosome duplicates, forming two centrosomes, which remain together near the nucleus. The two centrosomes move apart during prophase and prometaphase of mitosis as spindle microtubules grow out from them. By the end of prometaphase, the two centrosomes, one at each pole of the spindle, are at opposite ends of the cell.} Reece Campbell, Biology, 9th edition. P.231
iii. During metaphase (middle stage), the connection of sister chromatids to opposite spindle poles sets in motion a series of jostling movements that cause the chromosomes to move toward an imaginary equator halfway between the two poles. The imaginary midline is called the metaphase plate . When the chromosomes are aligned along it, the forces pulling and pushing them toward or away from each pole are in a balanced equilibrium.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.89

{During metaphase, the chromosomes are moved to the central plate of the cell by the spindle microtubules.}

http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__mitosis_and_cytokine sis.html
iv. Anaphase: The nearly simultaneous severing of the centromeric connection between the sister chromatids of all chromosomes indicates that anaphase is underway.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.89

v. Telephase: During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase are reversed. The spindle fibers begin to disperse; chromosome decondense (uncoil) and dissolved into a tangled mass of chromatin; Nuclear envelop forms;

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.89

vi. Cytokinesis: This final stage of division is called cytokinesis (literally cell movement). During cytokinesis, the elongated parent cell separates into two smaller independent daughter cells with identical nuclei. Cytokinesis usually begins during anaphase, but it is not completed until after telophase.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.89

--------------Somatic and Germ Cells During the many rounds of cell division within an embryo, most cells either grow and divide via the mitotic cell cycle just described, or they stop growing and become arrested in G 0 . These mitotically dividing and G 0 -arrested cells are the so-called somatic cells whose descendants continue to make up the vast majority of each organisms tissues throughout the lifetime of the individual. Early in the embryonic development of animals, however, a group of cells is set aside for a different fate. These are the germ cells : cells destined for a specialized role in the production of gametes. Germ cells arise later in plants, during floral development instead of during embryogenesis. The germ cells become incorporated in the reproductive organsovaries and testes in animals; ovaries and anthers in flowering plantswhere they ultimately undergo meiosis, the special twopart cell division that produces gametes (eggs and sperm or pollen) containing half the number of chromosomes as other body cells.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.92 ----Spindle Apparatus (Mitotic Spindle / Meiotic Spindle)
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated proteins, and any centrosomes or asterspresent at the spindle poles.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle_apparatus

Centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles, and actin, a halo of microtubule fragments, centrioles are found in most eukaryotic animal cells.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis#Interphase

Meiosis Unlike mitosis, meiosis consists of two successive nuclear divisions: o division I of meiosis (meiosis I ) and o division II of meiosis (meiosis II)
With each round, the cell passes through a prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase followed by cytokinesis. In meiosis I, the parent nucleus divides to form two daughter nuclei; in meiosis II, each of the two daughter nuclei divides, resulting in four nuclei ( Fig. 4.12 ). These four nucleithe final products of meiosisbecome partitioned in four separate daughter cells because cytokinesis occurs after both rounds of division. The chromosomes duplicate at the start of meiosis I, but they do not duplicate in meiosis II, which explains why the gametes contain half the number of chromosomes found in other body cells.

Leland Hartwell. Genetics from genes to genomes. 4th edition. P.92