Executive functioning

What are Executive functions?

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Set of processes that underlie flexible goaldirected behaviour (e.g. planning, inhibitory control, attentional flexibility,working memory). Associated with the pre-frontal cortex area of the brain.

How many components of Executive abilities are there?

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Lezak 1995 - Suggests there are 4 components of Executive function. Stuss 1987 - Identifies a number of associated skills necessary for goal-directed behaviour. Other authors also include focused and sustained attention , strategy skills, self- monitoring, and the ability to use feedback. (Glosser & Goodglass, 1990; Levin et al. 1991; Mateer & Williams, 1991).

Definitions operationalised into 3 separable but unified components of EF:

1.) Attentional control: selective attention and sustained attention l 2.) Cognitive flexibility: working memory, attentional shift, self-monitoring, and conceptual transfer. l 3.) Goal setting: initiating, planning and organisation, difficulties generating and implementing strategies for problem solving, and strategic behaviour.

What is Executive Dysfunction?

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Behavioural features- Poor self-control, impulsivity, erratic careless responses, poor initiation, inflexibility Cognitive features- Failure to carry out tasks which require one to use Executive Abilities. Main tasks developed from adults research on patients who sustained injury to pre-frontal region of the brain.

The Frontal Metaphor

Association noted between tasks which involve EF processes and damage to the Pre-frontal cortex. Neuropsychologists may say an individuals symptoms look frontal, without knowing the nature of the brain damage.

Are EF actually located in the Prefrontal cortex (PFC)?

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Evidence from neouroimaging and neuro anatomical studies suggests that EF processes are associated with the PFC (Rakic, Bougeois, Zecevic, Eckenhoff & Goldman-Rakic, 1986) -There is strong evidence from PET scan studies showing association between WCST and activity in the PFC in normal and schizophrenic patients. (Weinberger et al. 1994).

Why might damage to the PFC occur?

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Congenital (developmental disorder) Acquired childhood Acquired adulthood

Tests of Executive functioning

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Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Tower of Hanoi/London Stroop Verbal Fluency Rey Figure Test Self-ordering Pointing

Wisconsin Card Sort

Tower of Hanoi

Stroop Task
RED BLUE GREEN YELLOW RED BLUE GREEN YELLOW

Verbal Fluency Task

Generate as many words as possible in one minute that begin with the letter N ?
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Requires the use of a self generated strategy Time limit imposed

Rey Figure Test

Self-ordered Pointing task

Problem with measurements

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Multi-componential same poor performance, but different reason. (Discriminant validity) Poor at differentiating between EF deficits and non-EF deficits.

Why study Executive Functioning in children?

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Can inform us as to whether adults and children are qualitatively different in terms of EF. (frontal metaphor) Some EF may be observable in childhood, and then are no longer evident in adulthood. Gets around discriminant validity problem in adult tasks which involve a number of EF processes. Can inform us about the typical development of EF skills which can inform us about developmental disorders that involve EF impairments.

Key questions
How does EF develop? - Stages - Relationship between different EF processes Are children like adults in terms of EF? -frontal metaphor -look at typical and atypical developing children

EF in Typical development
Stages Age 6- Competence with simple planning and organised visual search. Age 10- Set maintenance, hypothesis testing, and impulse control attained. Adolescence- Complex planning, motor sequencing, and verbal fluency. l Evidence suggests improvement in EF during childhood corresponds with growth spurts in frontal lobe development (Anderson, Anderson, Northam et al; Bell & Fox,
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1992; Levin et al.,1991; Luciana & Nelson, 1998; Thatcher, 1991)

What does this tell us about EF?

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EF skills are not silent in childhood as previously thought Relationship between frontal lobe and EF ability provides further evidence of the role of the PFC in EF

Relationship between different EF processes

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Beveridge et al. (2002) failed to find an interaction between working memory and inhibitory control in 6-8 year olds. Perner & Lang (2002) 3yr olds but not 4 yrs olds show impairments on a task requiring visual search and rule reversal, showing evidence of an interaction between this skills.

What does this tell us about EF?

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Relationship between EF components is complex and is still in need of investigation. Interaction effects highlight the importance of adopting a developmental approach in exploring EF functions.

Are children like adults? - Frontal lesions in childhood

Williams & Mateer (1992) DR- 8:11, falling beam - EEG & MRI showed damage to frontal region.
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Failure to maintain intellectual ability after injury Social & language problems, but Verbal and non-verbal memory intact Difficulty with acquisition of new information Little spontaneous activity Tantrums, aggression, unpredictable outbursts, impulsivity

Williams & Mateer (1992) Case 2

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SN age 11, fell from tree -CT scan showed bilateral frontal lobe damage. -Dramatic changes in VIQ and PIQ - Problems with sustained attention, visuo-spatial planning, & motor control -inappropriate problem solving strategies, -Verbal reasoning and expressive vocabulary good, but not verbal inductive reasoning. - Tantrums, aggressive, inappropriate laughter, eating problems

Williams & Mateer (1992) Case 2

Age 12-probs with mental flexibility, sustaining attention, verbal fluency, & perceptual organisation. l Age 13-Bi-frontal abnormalities evident (EEG) Superior verbal ability, non-compliant behaviour l Age 15- probs with inhibiting verbal responses, extreme literalness, compulsive attention to detail, directing attention, high distractibility.
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Marlowe (1992) PL 3;11, lawn dart

Age 5 - good intellectual levels - good simultaneous but poor sequential processing - Verbal processing excellent, but needed instructions repeated extensively l Age 6 - similar intellectual level (but reduced efficiency in learning new info) - A number of other cognitive deficits were evident: poor anticipatory behaviour, verbal understanding, visuo-spatial organisation and production, distractable, inibition problems, perseveration.
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What do childhood case studies tell us?

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Frontal lesions have dramatic and lasting effects Suggests that effects of Frontal lesions are NOT silent, temporary, or radically different than adults. (support frontal metaphor) Severity and time of insult are important -down stream effects

Benefits of child research

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Adult tasks may require two or more Executive processes. The severity EF problems may differ depending on time of insult to the brain.

Summary
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Nature of EF EF associated with PFC EF tasks/problems (Disc. validity) Benefits of child research Similarities between adults/children Differences between adults/children

Neurodevelopmental implications
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Adult models can be applied to children Damage earlier results in more devastating EF impairments (very little plasticity)

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