CHAPTER6:

COMPENSATION
TECHNIQUES
(Par t A)
Int roduct ion
Control system design involves the following three
steps:
Determine what the system should do and how
to do it (design specifications).
Determine the controller or compensator
configuration relative to how it is connected to
the controlled process.
Determine the parameter values of the
controller to achieve the design goal.
Design Specificat ions
Used to describe what the system should do and
how it is done.
Examples of specifications: r el at i ve st abi li t y,
st eady-st at e accur acy (er r or ), t r ansi ent
r esponse, and f r equency-response
char act er i st i cs.
Frequency Domain Design
Graphical tools such as Bode plot, Nyquist plot, Nichols
chart.
Advant ages:
High order systems do not pose any particular
problem.
Pure time delay (e
-sT
) only affects the phase response.
Pure time delay does not need to be an integer
multiple of the sampling interval.
Di sadvant age:
Final measure of system performance more commonly
specified as a time domain requirement.
Time Domain Design
Includes transient response, limits on control signal,
integrated absolute error (area between the curve of the
desired response and that of the actual response).
Advant ages:
Final measure of system performance more commonly specified as
a time domain requirement.
Commonly applied in auto-tuning using relays.
Di sadvant ages:
Feasible analytically only for second order systems.
Pure time delay has to be an integer multiple of the sampling
interval.
Cont roller Configurations
Most conventional design methods rely on the fixed-
configuration design.
Control efforts involve the modification or compensation
of the systems performance characteristics.
The general design using fixed configuration is also called
compensation.
A compensat or is an additional component or circuit that
is inserted into a control system to compensate for a
deficient performance.
Exampl es: PID-type controllers, lag, lead and lag-lead
compensators
Cont roller Configurations in
Cont rol System Compensat ion
Ser i es or Cascade compensat i on
Feedback compensat i on
St at e Feedback Cont r ol
Compensat i on
Ser i es-f eedback compensat i on
Cont roller Configurations in
Cont rol System Compensat ion
For w ard Compensat i on w i t h ser i es compensat i on
Feedf or war d compensat i on
Fundament al Pr inciples of
Design
Controller configuration > Controller type >
Controller parameter values
Controller parameter values are typically the
coefficients of one or more transfer functions
making up the controller.
Can be selected only if the process transfer
function is known.
Determine how individual parameter values
influence the design specifications and system
performance.
Fundament al Pr inciples of
Design
Gener al gui del i nes:
Compl ex-conj ugat e pol es of the closed-loop transfer
function lead to a step response that is under damped. If
all syst em pol es are r eal , the step response is
over damped.
The response of a system is dominated by the pol es
cl osest t o t he or i gi n i n t he s-pl ane. Transient due to
those pol es f ar t her t o t he l ef t decay f ast er .
The f ar t her t o t he l ef t in the s-plane the systems
dominant poles are, the f ast er the system will respond
and the gr eat er its bandwidth will be.
The farther to the left in the s-plane the systems
dominant poles are, the larger its internal signals will be.
Fundament al Pr inciples of
Design
Gener al gui del i nes (cont .):
When a pol e and zero of a system transfer function
near l y cancel each ot her , the portion of the system
response associated with the zero-pole pair will have a
smal l magni t ude.
Time and frequency domain specifications are loosely
associated with each other.
Ri se Ti me:
Phase M ar gi n:
Resonance Peak:
1 0
16 . 2 60 . 0
< <
+
=

n
r
t
degrees 60 margin phase 0
100
margin phase
s s ~
0.707
1 2
1
2
s

=

r
M
Cascade Compensat ion
Net works
Compensator G
C
(s) is cascaded with the unalterable
process G
P
(s).
G
C
(s) can be chosen t o al t er t he shape of t he r oot l ocus.
In general,
Problem reduces to the selection of the zeros and poles
of G
C
(s).
[
[
=
=
+
+
=
n
j
j
m
i
i
C
p s
z s K
s G
1
1
) (
) (
) (
Pr ocess: Second order prototype with T.F.
Cont rol l er : PD type with the T.F.
Control signal applied to the process
Design with PD(Propor tional-
Der ivative) Controller
) 2 (
) (
2
n
n
P
s s
s G

+
=
) ( ) (
C D P c
z s K s K K s G + = + =
dt
t de
K t e K t u
D P
) (
) ( ) ( + =
Electronic-circuit realization
of t he PDcont roller
For t he t w o-op-amp ci r cui t , the input impedance of stage 1,
Output voltage of stage 1,
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1
R sC
R
R
R sC
sC
R +
=
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

( )
in in
E R sC
R
R
E
R sC
R
R
E
1 1
1
2
1 1
1
2
1
1
1
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
Output voltage of stage 2,
Transfer function of op-amp circuit:
Transfer function of PD controller:
Comparing with PD equation
Advant age: Only two op-amps are needed.
Di sadvant age: Does not allow independent selection of K
P
and
K
D
, as they are commonly dependent on R
2
.
( )
in
E R sC
R
R
E E
1 1
1
2
1 0
1+ = =
s C R
R
R
s E
s E
s G
in
c 1 2
1
2 0
) (
) (
) ( + = =
s K K s G
D P c
+ = ) (
1 2 1 2
/ C R K R R K
D P
= =
For t he t hr ee-op-amp ci r cui t ,
Stage 1:
Stage 2:
in
E
R
R
E
1
2
1
=
in d d
E C sR E =
2
R
E
R
E
R
E
0 2 1
0 0 0
=

0
1
2
E E C sR E
R
R
in d d in
= +
Transfer function of op-amp circuit:
Transfer function of PD controller:
Forward-path transfer function of the compensated system:
PD control is Equivalent to adding a simple zero at s = -K
P
/ K
D
to
the forward-path transfer function.
s C R
R
R
s E
s E
s G
d d
in
C
+ = =
1
2 0
) (
) (
) (
s K K s G
D P c
+ = ) (
( )
( )
n
D P n
P C
s s
s K K
s G s G
s E
s Y
s G

2
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
2
+
+
= = =
Summary of Effects of PD
Cont rol
Improves dampi ng and reduces maxi mum over shoot
Reduces r i se t i me and set t l i ng t i me
Increases BW
Improves gai n mar gi n, phase mar gi n and r esonance
peak
May accent uat e noi se at higher frequencies
Not effective for lightly damped or initially unstable
system
May require a relatively large capacitor in circuit
implementation
Example 6.1
Consider a second order model of an aircraft attitude
control system as follows:
Performance specifications:
Steady-state error due to unit ramp input s 0.000443
Maximum overshoot s 5%
Rise time t
r
s 0.005s
Settling time t
s
s 0.005s
) 2 . 361 (
4500
) (
+
=
s s
K
s G
Uncompensat ed syst em:
The ramp error constant =
Steady-state error due to a unit ramp input,
e
ss
s 0.000443
e
ss
= 1/K
v
361.2/(4500K) s 0.000443 => K 181.17.
Characteristic equation
Natural Frequency: rad/s
Damping ratio: (quite low)
2 . 361
4500
) ( lim
0
K
s sG K
s
v
= =

0 ) 17 . 181 ( 4500 2 . 361
2
= + + s s
0 815265 2 . 361
2
= + + s s
92 . 902 815265 = =
n

2 . 0
2
2 . 361
= =
n

% 7 . 52 ) - 1 / 100exp(- overshoot Maximum

2
= =
Syst em compensat ed w i t h PD cont r ol l er
- Inserting PD controller in forward-path of the system
- The damping and maximum overshoot are improved
- Maintain the e
ss
due to the unit ramp input at 0.000443
With the PD controller and K = 181.17, the forward-path transfer
function is
The closed-loop transfer function is
Ef f ect s of t he PD cont r ol l er :
Add a zero at s = -K
P
/K
D
to the closed-loop transfer function.
Increase the damping term.
) 2 . 361 (
) ( 815265
) (
) (
) (
+
+
=
O
O
=
s s
s K K
s
s
s G
D P
e
y
p D
D P
r
y
K s K s
s K K
s
s
815265 ) 815265 2 . 361 (
) ( 815265
) (
) (
2
+ + +
+
=
O
O
The ramp error constant is
The steady state error due to a unit ramp input is
e
ss
= 1/K
v
= 0.000443/K
P
.
Characteristic equation
Arbitrarily set K
P
= 1. (Which acceptable from the e
ss
requirement)
=> Incr eased dampi ng!
If we wish to have critical damping = 1, K
D
= 0.001772.
P
P
s
v
K
K
s sG K 1 . 2257
2 . 361
815265
) ( lim
0
= = =

0 815265 ) 815265 2 . 361 (
2
= + + +
P D
K s K s
rad/s 92 . 902 815265 = =
n

D
D
K
K
46 . 451 2 . 0
84 . 1805
815265 2 . 361
+ =
+
=
Unit step responses of the attitude control
system with and without PD control
Table below gives the results for K
P
= 1, K
D
= 0, 0.0005, 0.00177 and
0.0025.
Performance requirements are all satisfied with K
D
> 0.00177.
Constraints on K
D
:
Large K
D
corresponds to large BW, which may cause high-
frequency noise problem.
The capacitor value in the op-amp circuit implementation should
not be too large.
PD cont rol l er decr eases t he maxi mum overshoot and set t l i ng t i me
K
D
t
r
(s) t
s
(s) M ax. overshoot (%)
0 0.00125 0.0151 52.2
0.0005 0.00144 0.0076 25.7
0.00177 0.00119 0.0015 4.2
0.0025 0.00103 0.0013 0.7
A certain industrial plant synthesizes a chemical product from raw
materials at high temperature in a reactor. It is required to design a
controller for the system in order to control the temperature of the
reactor, which is considered an important parameter affecting the
quality of the chemical product. The transfer function between its
input (desired temperature) and the output (actual temperature) is
estimated to be
a) The system is known to be lightly damped. Find the damping ratio
of the system in closed-loop without any controller.
b) Design a Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller in order to
improve the damping ratio by five times of the original value
found in part (a). It is also required that the steady-state error in
response to a unit ramp input be equal to 0.01.
c) State, in general, two positive effects of improving the damping
ratio of a lightly damped system.
) 2 . 0 (
1
) (
+
=
s s
s G
P
Pr ocess: Second order prototype with T.F.:
Cont rol l er : PI type with the T.F.:
Control signal applied to the process:
) 2 (
) (
2
n
n
P
s s
s G

+
=
Design wit h PI Cont roller
s
z s
K
s
K
K s G
C I
P C
+
= + = ) (
}
+ = dt t e K t e K t u
I P
) ( ) ( ) (
Electronic-circuit realization
of t he PI cont roller
For t he t w o-op-amp ci r cui t , the transfer function,
Comparing with PI equation:
s C R R
R
s E
s E
s G
in
c
2 1 1
2 0
1
) (
) (
) ( + = =
2 1 1
2
1

C R
K
R
R
K
I P
= =
For t he t hr ee-op-amp ci r cui t ,
Transfer function:
Comparing with PI equation:
s C R R
R
s E
s E
s G
i i in
C
1
) (
) (
) (
1
2 0
+ = =
i i
I P
C R
K
R
R
K
1
1
2
= =
The forward-path transfer function of the compensated
system is
Immediate effects of PI controller:
Adds a zero at s = -K
I
/K
P
to the forward-path transfer function.
Adds a pole at s = 0 to the forward-path transfer function.
System type is increased from type-1 to type-2.
System order increased from second order to third order.
) 2 (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
n
I P n
P C
s s
K s K
s G s G s G

+
+
= =
Advant ages and di sadvant ages of PI cont rol :
Reduces rise time
Increases settling time
Decreases BW
Filters out high frequency noise
May need a large capacitor value
Feasi bl e met hod of desi gni ng t he PI cont r ol l er :
Sel ect t he zer o at s = -K
I
/ K
P
so t hat i t i s r el at i vel y cl ose t o t he
or i gi n and aw ay f r om t he most si gni f i cant pol es of t he pr ocess.
K
P
and K
I
shoul d bot h be r el at i vel y smal l .
A zero close to the origin provides the effects of pole-zero
cancellation. Improves stability by reducing phase lag.
s
s
K
K
K
s
K
K s G
I
P
I
I
P C
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= + =
1
) (
The smal l er K
I
/ K
P
is, the faster approaches +90
degrees.
K
P
shoul d be smal l to avoid a large gain at phase crossover
frequency.
Increase stability.
|
|
.
|

\
|

I
P
K
K
1
tan
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = Z


I
P
C
K
K
j G
1
tan 90 ) (

2
2 2
2
1
| ) ( |
P I
I
P
I
C
K K
K
K
K
j G
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
Example 6.2
Consider the second order attitude control system
discussed in Example 6.1. Applying the PI controller, the
forward-path transfer function of the system becomes
Time domain performance requirements:
Steady-state error due to parabolic input t
2
u
s
(t )/2 s 0.2
Maximum overshoot s 5%
Rise time t
r
s 0.01s
Settling time t
s
s 0.02s
) 2 . 361 (
) / ( 4500
) ( ) ( ) (
2
+
+
= =
s s
K K s KK
s G s G s G
P I P
P C
Syst em compensat ed w i t h PI cont rol l er
The parabolic error constant is
The steady state error constant is
Set K = 181.17 (The value used in Example 6.1)
=> K
I
> 0.002215 (Minimum value of K
I
= 0.002215 )
I
I
P I P
s s
a
KK
KK
s s
K K s KK
s s G s K
46 . 12
2 . 361
4500

) 2 . 361 (
) / ( 4500
lim ) ( lim
2
2
0
2
0
= =
+
+
= =

0.2) (
08026 . 0 1
s = =
I a
ss
KK K
e
Characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
Rouths test:
St abl e f or 0 < K
I
/K
P
< 361.2.
Arbitrarily select
0 815265 815265 2 . 361
2 3
= + + +
I P
K s K s s
I
I P
I
P
K s
K K s
K s
K s
815265
2 . 361 / 815265 815265
815265 2 . 361
815265 1
0
1
2
3

2 . 361 <<
P
I
K
K
10 =
P
I
K
K
Forward-path:
Starting points (poles): 0, 0, -361.2
Ending points (zeros): -10, ,
Intersection of asymptotes:
) 2 . 361 (
) 10 ( 815265
) 2 . 361 (
) 10 ( ) 17 . 181 ( 4500
) (
2 2
+
+
=
+
+
=
s s
s K
s s
s K
s G
P P

1 3
zeros finite of sum - poles finite of sum

175
2
(-10) - 361.2 -
= =
Breakaway points:
s = 0, -21, -175
0 =
ds
dK
P
) 10 ( 815265
) 2 . 361 (
2
+
+
=
s
s s
K
P
0
10
4 . 722 3
) 10 (
2 . 361
815265
1
2
2
2 3
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

+
+
=
s
s s
s
s s
ds
dK
P
0 7224 2 . 391 2
2 3
= + + s s s
Root l oci w i t h K
I
/ K
P
= 10, K
P
var i es
Assume we wish to have a relative damping ratio of 0.707
From the root loci, K
P
= 0.08 and K
I
= 0.8
At the design point, the three characteristic equation roots are
at
s = -10.605 -175.3 + j175.4 and -175.3 j175.4
Rel at i onshi p bet w een compl ex conj ugat e pol es, and
n
Consider a pair of complex conjugate poles given by
Roots =
0 2
2
2
= + +
n n
s s
2
2 2
2
1
2
4 4 2


=

n n
n n n
j
Table below gives the attributes of the unit step responses of
the system with PI control for various values of K
I
/K
P
, with K
P
=
0.08.
K
I
/ K
P
K
I
K
P
Maximum overshoot
(%)
t
r
(s) t
s
(s)
0 0 1.00 52.7 0.00135 0.015
20 1.60 0.08 15.16 0.0074 0.049
10 0.80 0.08 9.93 0.0078 0.0294
5 0.40 0.08 7.17 0.0080 0.023
2 0.16 0.08 5.47 0.0083 0.0194
1 0.08 0.08 4.89 0.0084 0.0114
0.5 0.04 0.08 4.61 0.0084 0.0114
0.1 0.008 0.08 4.38 0.0084 0.0115
Uni t st ep r esponses of t he syst em i n Exampl e 6.2 w i t h PI cont rol
A process has a transfer function of
The process is to be controlled in closed loop using
a PI controller. Design the controller such that the
steady-state error in response to a ramp input is
10% of the magnitude of the ramp. The closed-
loop zero should be placed at 10.
5
1
) (
+
=
s
s G
P
Design wit h PIDCont roller
We can regard design of controllers as a filter design problem
PD cont rol l er => High-pass filter
PI cont rol l er => Low-pass filter
To improve both the e
ss
(which is achieved using PI controller)
and transient response (which is achieved using PD controller)
independently, a PID cont rol l er can be used
PID cont rol l er => band-attenuate filter
Transfer function of the PID controller:
s
z s z s
K
s
K s K s K
s K
s
K
K s G
lead lag
I P D
D
I
p C
) )( (
) (
2
+ +
=
+ +
= + + =
}
+ + =
dt
de
K dt e K e K u
D I p
Bode pl ot f or PID cont rol l er w i t h K
P
= K
I
= K
D
= 1
When designing a PID cont rol l er for a given system, follow
the steps shown below to obtain a desired response:
Obtain an open-loop response and determine what
needs to be improved
Add a proportional control to improve the rise time
Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state
error
Adjust each of K
P
, K
I
and K
D
until you obtain a desired
overall response