MOTIVATION

Psychologists define motivation as a condition that directs behaviour usually toward a goal (Watts, 2003). Theories of Motivation Like all of us, psychologists are interested in explaining peoples behaviour. There are several theories of motivation, each of which takes a different approach to explain what compels individuals to act as they do.

Instinct Theory Instinct theory maintains that behaviours originate from a set of behavioural blueprints, or instincts (Fancher, 1996). Instinctive behaviours are inborn and activated by particular environmental stimuli. For example, babies are born with reflexes that allow them to engage in primitive social behaviour. The rooting reflex, for example, involves turning the head and using the mouth to search for a nipple. Rooting not only helps a baby to eat, but it allows the infant to seek contact with other people. Combined with the ability to recognize their mothers by smell, rooting enables babies to start establishing close relationships with their mothers (Swain et al., 2007). As the baby grows, new abilities emerge, such as smiling, laughing, reaching arms out to be carried, and talking. All of these further encourage the formation of social bonds, thus increasing the chance of survival (Messinger & Fogel, 2007; Broad,Curley, & Keverne, 2006). The nuances of this basic motivation change as we grow. For example, instead of seeking mother love, we seek romantic love. The motivation to be socially connected remains strong throughout life, however.

Although instinct theory can explain some of our behaviour and a substantial proportion of animal behaviour, instincts dont account for all behaviour (Clark, Broadbent, & Squire, 2008). Instinct theory also has trouble explaining differences among individuals (Bevins, 2001). Among humans, for example, some of us seek out experiences that others avoid or even find painful. Consider adventurers who have climbed Mount Everest, a gruelling and dangerous activity. Clearly, these behaviours are not driven by instincts. We need other explanations for these motivations. Drive-Reduction Theory This theory is based on the concept of homeostasis, a tendency of the body to maintain itself in a state of balance or equilibrium. When an external factor alters the state of balance in the organism, a motivation arises to correct that balance (Stricker & Zigmond, 1986). A simple example of this can be seen in the response of the body to heat. When the temperature rises, your body perspires and you lose water. The perspiration evaporates and cools the surface of the skin, helping to maintain the temperature balance in the body. In addition, you may feel motivated to take actions that will hasten your return to an ideal body temperature, such as shedding some layers of clothing or getting a cool drink. Thus, drive-reduction theory works well to explain behaviours related to biological needs.

Arousal Theory Arousal theory maintains that motivation comes from a need to achieve an appropriate level of arousal (Jones, 2003). This theory is different from drive-reduction theory in that the motivation doesnt always arise from a need to reduce arousal back to a neutral state. While some situations, such as hunger or thirst, can elevate our arousal to uncomfortable levels that we try to reduce (by, for example, seeking food or drink), arousal theory states that we can also be motivated to elevate our arousal levels if they fall too low. Such underarousal may stimulate us to seek out interesting and exciting situations (Maggini, 2000). In addition to providing motivation, our arousal levels can systematically affect our performance on tasks we undertake. The Yerkes-Dodson law states that ideal performance on a task occurs when our arousal level is right for the difficulty of the task. Task difficulty and arousal seem to be inversely related. That is, our performance on difficult tasks is optimal at relatively low arousal states, while our performance on easy tasks is optimal at high arousal states. This may be related to the fact that difficult tasks require more intense concentration that

may be disrupted by highly arousing circumstances. Imagine, for example, that you are trying to finish writing a term paper. You may find it easier to focus on your writing if you are not highly aroused by a deadline looming only a few hours away. If, however, you are trying to read some really boring material, you may need to periodically raise your arousal levels with snacks, stretch breaks, and the like, to help you focus on the task.

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Yerkes-Dodson law Incentive Theory Some behaviours are intrinsically motivating, which means that engaging in the behaviour is satisfying in and of itself (Schmitt & Lahroodi, 2008). Other behaviours are driven by external motives, or incentives. Behaviour that is motivated by external incentives is known as extrinsically motivated. Incentive theory highlights the influence of external stimuli in behaviour. Incentive theory would suggest that external rewards, such as public acclaim or financial prizes, contribute to motivation. For example, a good deal of your own behaviour as a student is probably also motivated by external factors, such as the desire to achieve high grades, graduate on time, and obtain a good job. Incentives can be either primary or secondary and they can be rewarding or punitive.
Primary incentives are rewards or punishments that are innate; we do not have to learn

to either like or dislike them. Food is a primary reward, and pain is a primary punishment, for example. Most humans instinctually find food rewarding and electric

shock punishing. For that reason, these stimuli are likely to influence our behaviour. There is an adaptive, or evolutionary, component to primary rewards and punishments. Typically, stimuli that increase our chances of survival and reproduction, such as food and sex, are rewarding, while those that are potentially harmful, such as anything painful, are punishing.
Secondary incentives are cues that are viewed as rewarding or punishing as a result of

learning about their association with other events. For example, most people are motivated to work to earn money. Money, in and of itself, is not rewarding. It becomes motivating to us when we learn its association with the rewarding goods, such as food, that money can buy. Although incentive theory explains how our behaviour is shaped by external stimuli, not all of our behaviour is motivated by wanting a reward or avoiding a punishment. Integrating incentive theory with other motivation theories is necessary to explain the complexity of motivation. For example, drive-reduction theory explains that eating to reduce the feeling of hunger maintains homeostasis and incentive theory explains the rewarding feelings associated with what you eat and the incentive to eat that food again in the future. Multiple Motivations: Hierarchy of Needs Psychologists have also recognized that different motives can compete with one another (LaGraize et al., 2004). For instance, you might find it particularly difficult to concentrate on completing a homework assignment if you need to use the bathroom. The relative strength of certain motives and their ability to supersede one another led humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe motives, or needs, in terms of a hierarchy (Maslow, 1978). The most basic needs, such as the need to eat or drink, are at the bottom of the hierarchy pyramid. Unless these needs are satisfied, we find it difficult to generate motivation to engage in other behaviours. Above the basic needs are the safety needs: the need to feel secure and stable. Its important to realize that a balance exists between the first and second tier on the pyramid. It would not make sense for us to run out into traffic to stop the ice cream truck, acting primarily on our need to eat and bypassing the need for safety. That doesnt happen often, because food is usually not a matter of life or death in our culture. But humans, as well as other animals, will often take great risks to obtain food and water if they cant be obtained in a safer setting. Above the safety needs is the need to feel love and to belong to a social group. This need motivates us to seek companionship in the form of friends and romantic partners. It motivates the creation of families and the formation of clubs and other social organizations. The social need varies considerably from species to species. Humans vary from person to person, but as a species, we are highly social and our needs for human contact are often very strong motivators of our behaviour. Above the need to belong socially rests the need for a feeling of self-worth. This need motivates us to achieve at school, work, and in the home. Finally, at the top of the pyramid, rests the need for self-actualization. As our highest need, the need for self-actualization motivates us to live up to our potential and become the best we can

be. For many people, this involves engaging in selfless, altruistic behaviour, in the form of political activism or humanitarian behaviour.

Self-esteem (accepting of self as you are)

Self-actualization (ethics, philosophical and artistic expression)

Safety (low risk of physical harm)

Love and belonging (loving, being loved, social relationships)

Biological (food, water, sleep, sex)

Some Concepts
Instinct - complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is

unlearned.
Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state. Incentive - a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.