Introduction to GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. That reveals relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework. A geographic information system (GIS) is any system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that are linked to location. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography and database technology. Practitioners also define a GIS as including the procedures, operating personnel, and spatial data that go into the system. GIS is considered a new and trailblazing technological application that aids in scientific investigation, resource management and development planning. The power of a GIS comes from the ability to relate different information in a spatial context and to reach a conclusion about this relationship. Most of the information we have about our world contains a location reference, placing that information at some point on the globe. This is done by using a location reference system, such as longitude and latitude, and perhaps elevation. GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset management, archaeology, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography, criminology, geographic history, marketing, logistics, prospectively mapping, and other purposes. For example, GIS might Allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times (i.e. logistics) in the event of a natural disaster.

GIS techniques and technology

Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a computeraided design (CAD) program, and georeferencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery (both from satellite and aerial sources), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing).

Relating information from different sources

Location may be annotated by x, y, and z coordinates of longitude, latitude, and elevation, or by other geocode systems like ZIP codes or by highway mile markers. Any variable that can be located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Several computer databases that can be directly entered into a GIS are being produced by government agencies and nongovernment organizations. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS. A GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be analyzed to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers. Another fairly recently developed resource for naming GIS objects is the Getty Thesaurus of
Geographic Names (GTGN), which is a structured vocabulary containing about 1,000,000

names and other information about places.

Geographical Data Sets of GIS

Geographic Data Types although the two terms, data and information, are often used indiscriminately, they both have a specific meaning. Data can be described as different observations, which are collected and stored. Information is that data, which is useful in answering queries or solving a problem. Digitizing a large number of maps provides a large amount of data after hours of painstaking works, but the data can only render useful information if it is used in analysis. Spatial and Non-spatial data Geographic data are organized in a geographic database. This database can be considered as a collection of spatially referenced data that acts as a model of reality. There are two important components of this geographic database: its geographic position and its attributes or properties. In other words, spatial data (where is it?) and attribute data (what is it?)

Mapping Concepts, Features & Properties

A map represents geographic features or other spatial phenomena by graphically conveying information about locations and attributes. Locational information describes the position of particular geographic features on the Earth's surface, as well as the spatial relationship between features, such as the shortest path from a fire station to a library, the proximity of competing businesses, and so on. Attribute information describes characteristics of the geographic features represented, such as the feature type, its name or number and quantitative information such as its area or length. Thus the basic objective of mapping is to provide descriptions of geographic phenomenon

spatial and non-spatial information Map features like Point, Line, & Polygon.

Map Features
Locational information is usually represented by points for features such as wells and telephone pole locations, lines for features such as streams, pipelines and contour lines and areas for features such as lakes, counties and census tracts. Point feature A point feature represents as single location. It defines a map object too small to show as a line or area feature. A special symbol of label usually depicts a point location.

Line feature A line feature is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape of a map object that may be too narrow to display as an area such as a road or feature with no width such as a contour line.

Area feature An area feature is a closed figure whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area, such as a state country soil type or lake.

Map Characteristics
In addition to feature locations and their attributes, the other technical characteristics that define maps and their use include:

Map Scale Map Accuracy Map Extent and Data Base Extent

Applications of GIS
The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish the GIS system from other information system are its spatial analysis functions. Although the data input is, in general, the most time consuming part, it is for data analysis that GIS is used. The analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of realworld processes by developing and applying models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographic data and thus make new information available. Results of geographic analysis can be communicated with the help of maps, or both. GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, archaeology, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography, criminology, geographic history, marketing, logistics, prospectively mapping, and other purposes. For example, GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times (i.e. logistics) in the event of a natural disaster, GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution, or GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to take advantage of a previously under-served market.

GIS in Telecommunication
GIS is a powerful technology that can be used to design any decision-making and planning
tools to work on the geographical features. It also helps in managing the processes and actions that take place on these features in telecom affairs like customer relationships, workforce management, expanding the network services and other location based services. Earlier the focus was on individual projects where individual departments/users created and maintained their data sets on their own desktop computers. Later as the Telecom industry evolved and expanded its networks, there has been extensive interaction and work-flow between departments. To manage such operations smoothly it was imperative to get the details about the customer locations and network assets deployed at various locations. To meet these challenges, the organizations had switched from desktop stand-alone GIS applications to more integrated GIS applications.

One such Enterprise GIS application was needed for a particular network expansion scenario, for which Infosys had built the NPI. The NPI can use and display spatial data from different data sources, helping the Plant Engineers to view and analyze the network data. The planners can create hypothetical designs to install the necessary Telecom equipments at the right places and enhance their services to all subscriber locations. Some of the potential benefits that the NPI has provided as an Enterprise GIS solution to the Telecom industry are:

Significantly reduced redundancy of data across the system. Improved accuracy and integrity of geographic information. More efficient use and sharing of data. Spatial Data can be integrated and used in decision making processes across the whole organization.

Reduces the data acquisition costs and maintains the data quality across organizations and departments.

SENSOR NETWORKS
A sensor network is a group of specialized transducers with a communications. Infrastructure intended to monitor and record conditions at diverse locations. Commonly monitored parameters are temperature, humidity, pressure, wind Direction and speed, illumination intensity, vibration intensity, sound intensity, Power-line voltage, chemical concentrations, pollutant levels and vital body Functions. A sensor network consists of multiple detection stations called sensor nodes, each of which is small, lightweight and portable. Every sensor node is equipped with a Transducer, microcomputer, transceiver and power source. The transducer generates electrical signals based on sensed physical effects and phenomena. The microcomputer processes and stores the sensor output. The transceiver, which can be hard-wired or wireless, receives commands from a central computer and transmits data to that computer. The power for each sensor node is derived from the electric utility or from a battery. Previously, sensor networks consisted of small number of sensor nodes that were wired to a central processing station. However, nowadays, the focus is more on wireless, distributed,
sensing nodes.

Potential applications of sensor networks include: Industrial automation Video surveillance Traffic monitoring Medical device monitoring monitoring of weather conditions Air traffic control

Wireless sensor network

A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of spatially distributed autonomous sensors to cooperatively monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants. The development of wireless sensor networks was motivated by military applications such as battlefield surveillance. They are now used in many industrial and civilian application areas, including industrial process monitoring and control, machine health monitoring, environment and habitat monitoring, healthcare applications, home automation, and traffic control. In addition to one or more sensors, each node in a sensor network is typically equipped with a radio transceiver or other wireless communications device, a small microcontroller, and an energy source, usually a battery. A sensor node might vary in size from that of a shoebox down to the size of a grain of dust, although functioning "motes" of genuine microscopic dimensions have yet to be created. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly variable, ranging from hundreds of dollars to a few pennies, depending on the size of the sensor network and the complexity required of individual sensor nodes. Size and cost constraints on sensor nodes result in corresponding constraints on resources such as energy, memory, computational speed and bandwidth. A sensor network normally constitutes a wireless ad-hoc network, meaning that each sensor supports a multi-hop routing algorithm (several nodes may forward data packets to the base station). In computer science and telecommunications, wireless sensor networks are an active research area with numerous workshops and conferences arranged each year.

GIS Integrated Sensor Networks

GIS is now widely accepted as powerful and integrated tools for storing, manipulating, visualizing and analyzing spatial data. GIS are usually centralized and need knowledgeable users for effective operation. With a short history the integration of sensor networks and GIS technology has produced an expanding area of research referred to integrated GIS sensing network. GIS is very efficient for reaching the correct conclusion in a fraction of time. WSN provides huge amount of data. If it would be possible to integrate the power of WSN with GIS, the data can be obtained in a very short time and the evaluation time can be decreased.

Standards and specifications

Several standards are currently either ratified or under development for integrated wireless sensor networks. In addition to the standards, there are also several non-standard, proprietary mechanisms and specifications. 6lowpan, ISA100, WirelessHART, and ZigBee are all based on the same underlying radio standard: IEEE 802.15.4 - 2006.
6LoWPAN

6LoWPAN is a working group within the IETF that has produced a standards track specification for the transmission of IPv6 packets over IEEE 802.15.4.

EnOcean

EnOcean is a system for wireless communication in the building automation world. It is not standardized with any of the generally approved standardization bodies
IEC 62591

The International Electro technical Commission (IEC) approved the WirelessHART specification as a full international standard (IEC 62591Ed. 1.0) in April 2010.
IEEE 1451

Also relevant to sensor networks is the emerging IEEE 1451 which attempts to create standards for the smart sensor market. The main point of smart sensors is to move the processing intelligence closer to the sensing device.
ISA100

ISA100 is a new standard under development that makes use of 6lowpan and provides additional agreements for industrial control applications. ISA100 is scheduled for completion in 2009.
WirelessHART

The WirelessHART standard is an extension of the HART Protocol and is specifically designed for Industrial applications like Process Monitoring and Control. WirelessHART was added to the overall HART protocol suite as part of the HART 7 Specification, which was approved by the HART Communication Foundation in June 2007.
ZigBee

ZigBee is an IEEE standard networking specification intended for uses such as embedded sensing, medical data collection, consumer devices like television remote controls, and home automation. ZigBee is promoted by a large consortium of industry players.

Applications of GIS Integrated SN

The applications for Integrated WSNs are varied, typically involving some kind of monitoring, tracking, or controlling. Specific applications include habitat monitoring, object tracking, nuclear reactor control, fire detection, and traffic monitoring. In a typical application, a WSN is scattered in a region where it is meant to collect data through its sensor nodes.

Area monitoring
Area monitoring is a common application of Integrated WSNs. In area monitoring, the WSN is deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. For example, a large quantity of sensor nodes could be deployed over a battlefield to detect enemy intrusion instead of using landmines. When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat, pressure, sound, light, electro-magnetic field, vibration, etc.), the event needs to be reported to one of the base stations, which can take appropriate action (e.g., send a message on the internet or to a satellite).

Environmental monitoring
A number of Integrated WSNs have been deployed for environmental monitoring. Many of these have been short lived, often due to the prototype nature of the projects. Examples of longer-lived deployments are monitoring the state of permafrost in the Swiss Alps: The Perma Sense Project, Perma Sense Online Data Viewer and glacier monitoring.

Machine Health Monitoring or Condition based maintenance

Integrated Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionalities. In wired systems, the installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring, which runs between $10$1000 per foot. Previously inaccessible locations, rotating machinery, hazardous or restricted areas, and mobile assets can now be reached with wireless sensors.

Industrial Monitoring
Water/Wastewater Monitoring
There are many opportunities for using wireless sensor networks within the water/wastewater industries. Facilities not wired for power or data transmission can be monitored using industrial wireless I/O devices and sensors powered using solar panels or battery packs. Landfill Ground Well Level Monitoring and Pump Counter Wireless sensor networks can be used to measure and monitor the water levels within all ground wells in the landfill site and monitor leachate accumulation and removal. A wireless device and submersible pressure transmitter monitors the leachate level. The sensor information is wirelessly transmitted to a central data logging system to store the level data, perform calculations, or notify personnel when a service vehicle is needed at a specific well. It is typical for leachate removal pumps to be installed with a totalizing counter mounted at the top of the well to monitor the pump cycles and to calculate the total volume of leachate removed from the well. For most current installations, this counter is read manually. Instead of manually collecting the pump count data, wireless devices can send data from the pumps back to a central control location to save time and eliminate errors. The control system uses this count information to determine when the pump is in operation, to calculate leachate extraction volume, and to schedule maintenance on the pump. Flare Stack Monitoring Landfill managers need to accurately monitor methane gas production, removal, venting, and burning. Knowledge of both methane flow and temperature at the flare stack can define when methane is released into the environment instead of combusted. To accurately determine methane production levels and flow, a pressure transducer can detect both pressure and vacuum present within the methane production system. Thermocouples connected to wireless I/O devices create the wireless sensor network that detects the heat of an active flame, verifying that methane is burning. Logically, if the meter is indicating a methane flow and the temperature at the flare stack is high, then the methane is burning correctly. If the meter indicates methane flow and the temperature is low, methane is releasing into the environment.

Vehicle Detection
Integrated Wireless sensor networks can use a range of sensors to detect the presence of vehicles ranging from motorcycles to train cars.

Agriculture
Using Integrated wireless sensor networks within the agricultural industry is increasingly common. Gravity fed water systems can be monitored using pressure transmitters to monitor water tank levels, pumps can be controlled using wireless I/O devices, and water use can be measured and wirelessly transmitted back to a central control center for billing. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste. Windrow Composting Composting is the aerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic matter to produce compost, a nutrient-rich mulch of organic soil produced using food, wood, manure, and/or other organic material. One of the primary methods of composting involves using windrows. To ensure efficient and effective composting, the temperatures of the windrows must be measured and logged constantly. With accurate temperature measurements, facility managers can determine the optimum time to turn the windrows for quicker compost production. Manually collecting data is time consuming, cannot be done continually, and may expose the person collecting the data to harmful pathogens. Automatically collecting the data and wirelessly transmitting the data back to a centralized location allows composting temperatures to be continually recorded and logged, improving efficiency, reducing the time needed to complete a composting cycle, and minimizing human exposure and potential risk. An industrial wireless I/O device mounted on a stake with two thermocouples, each at different depths, can automatically monitor the temperature at two depths within a compost windrow or stack. Temperature sensor readings are wirelessly transmitted back to the gateway or host system for data collection, analysis, and logging. Because the temperatures are measured and recorded continuously, the composting rows can be turned as soon as the temperature reaches the ideal point. Continuously monitoring the temperature may also provide an early warning to potential fire hazards by notifying personnel when temperatures exceed recommended ranges.

Greenhouse Monitoring

Integrated Wireless sensor networks are also used to control the temperature and humidity levels inside commercial greenhouses. When the temperature and humidity drops below specific levels, the greenhouse manager must be notified via e-mail or cell phone text message, or host systems can trigger misting systems, open vents, turn on fans, or control a wide variety of system responses. Because some wireless sensor networks are easy to install, they are also easy to move as the needs of the application change.

Characteristics
Unique characteristics of an integrated WSN include: Limited power they can harvest or store Ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions Ability to cope with node failures Mobility of nodes Dynamic network topology Communication failures Heterogeneity of nodes Large scale of deployment Unattended operation Node capacity is scalable, only limited by bandwidth of gateway node. Sensor nodes can be imagined as small computers, extremely basic in terms of their interfaces and their components. They usually consist of a processing unit with limited computational power and limited memory, sensors (including specific conditioning circuitry), a communication device (usually radio transceivers or alternatively optical), and a power source usually in the form of a battery. Other possible inclusions are energy harvesting modules, secondary ASICs, and possibly secondary communication devices. The base stations are one or more distinguished components of the WSN with much more computational, energy and communication resources. They act as a gateway between sensor nodes and the end user.