Contents

Democracy .................................................................................................................................................... 2 Types of Democracies .................................................................................................................................. 2 I. II. Direct democracy .............................................................................................................................. 2 Representative democracy ............................................................................................................... 2

PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY........................................................................................................................ 3 1. Citizen Participation.............................................................................................................................. 3 2. Equality ................................................................................................................................................. 3 3. Political Tolerance ................................................................................................................................ 3 4. Accountability ....................................................................................................................................... 3 5. Transparency ......................................................................................................................................... 3 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections ........................................................................................................... 4 7. Economic Freedom ............................................................................................................................... 4 8. Control of the Abuse of Power ............................................................................................................. 4 9. Bill of Rights ......................................................................................................................................... 4 10. Accepting the Results of Elections ..................................................................................................... 4 11. Human Rights ..................................................................................................................................... 5 12. Multi-Party System ............................................................................................................................. 5 13. The Rule of Law ................................................................................................................................. 5 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT............................................................................................................................ 5 1. Parliamentary government. .............................................................................................................. 5

2. Presidential government ........................................................................................................................ 6 3 Unitary government ............................................................................................................................. 7 4 Federal government ............................................................................................................................. 7 5 Military governments ........................................................................................................................... 8 6 Governments of National Unit ............................................................................................................... 9 7 COALITION GOVERNMENTS ................................................................................................................... 9 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................... 13 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 13

Democracy
Democracy is a government by the people in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system; often defined as the rule of the people. Democracy is a system of government in which a countrys political leaders are chosen by the people in regular, free, and fair elections. It is a system of making rules determined by the people who are to obey those rules. The power is held directly or indirectly by citizens under a free electoral system. It is derived from the Greek word for "people's government". It is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of a set of practices and procedures that have been molded through a long, often tortuous history.

Types of Democracies
Democracies fall into two basic categories namely direct and representative democracies: I. Direct democracy

It is a form of democracy in which the people as a whole make direct decisions, rather than have those decisions made for them by elected representatives. In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions. Such a system is clearly only practical with relatively small numbers of people. A community organization or tribal council, for example, or the local unit of a labor union, where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by consensus or majority vote. Ancient Athens, the world's first democracy, managed to practice direct democracy with an assembly that may have numbered as many as 5,000 to 6,000 persons, perhaps the maximum number that can physically gather in one place and practice direct democracy. II. Representative democracy

It is a type of democracy in which the citizens delegate authority to elected representatives. In a representative democracy, citizens elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws, and administer programs for the public good. In the name of the people, such officials can deliberate on complex public issues in a thoughtful and systematic manner that requires an investment of time and energy that is often impractical for the vast majority of private citizens.

How such officials are elected can vary enormously. On the national level, for example, legislators can be chosen from districts that each elect a single representative. Alternatively, under a system of proportional representation, each political party is represented in the legislature according to its percentage of the total vote nationwide. Provincial and local elections can mirror these national models, or choose their representatives more informally through group consensus instead of elections. Whatever the method used, public officials in a representative democracy hold office in the name of the people and remain accountable to the people for their actions.

PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY
1. Citizen Participation One of the most basic signposts of a democracy is citizen participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy. It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed, debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a better democracy. 2. Equality Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal. Equality means that all Individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs. 3. Political Tolerance Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society is often composed of people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition, then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss, debate and question them. 4. Accountability In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. 5. Transparency For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country.

This is referred to as transparency in government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information about what decisions are being made, by whom and why. 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections One way citizens of the country express their will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based on a citizen's wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote. 7. Economic Freedom People in a democracy must have some form of economic freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work and labor unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due to past discrimination or other unfair practices. 8. Control of the Abuse of Power Democratic societies try to prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of government; to allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of power. 9. Bill of Rights Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes part of a country's constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights. A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on individuals and organizations. 10. Accepting the Results of Elections In democratic elections, there are winners and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so Strongly that their party or candidate is the best one, that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It may even result in violence which is also against democracy.

11. Human Rights All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education. 12. Multi-Party System In order to have a multi-party system, more than one political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election. This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues. Additionally, a multiparty system provides voters with a choice of candidates, parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party, the result has been a dictatorship. 13. The Rule of Law In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as "due process of law."

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Parliamentary government. This is a system of government having the real executive power vested in a cabinet composed of members of the legislature who are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature or the parliament. A parliamentary government includes an elected assembly or parliament whose members makes decisions, pass laws, and supervise spending of public funds. Parliaments also act as a sort of middleman or intermediary between ordinary citizens and the government. The government is accountable to the parliament which, in turn, implicitly represents the views of the people who elected them. The ministers of the executive branch are drawn from the legislature and are accountable to that body, such that the executive and legislative branches are intertwined. The head of government is both de facto chief executive and chief legislator. The ministers are the top officials. They make up an executive body that is called the cabinet. Ministers can also be members of parliament, and so they carry out legislative or law-making functions as well. Both the government and the cabinet functions under the control of the parliament as a whole and remains in power only as long as it has the support of a majority of the members of parliament. Parliamentary systems are characterized by no clear-cut separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches, leading to a different set of checks and balances compared to those found in presidential systems. Parliamentary systems usually have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government being the

prime minister, and the head of state often being a figurehead, either a president elected either popularly or by the parliament or a hereditary monarch often in a constitutional monarchy. You have someone running the country, but the person elected is voted by the party in power and most likely has a queen as a figure head with no actual power. Government is advised by a body of cabinet ministers who are chosen from and responsible to the legislature and act as advisers to a nominal chief of state. A prime minister is the head of the government, and chairs the council of ministers/cabinet which advises on government policy. The prime minister is elected by the legislature, most often on the basis of a majority vote. The government is collectively accountable to parliament and requires its continued confidence to stay in power. The legislature itself is elected on the basis of a multiparty system and adult franchise. Like the Prime Minister, cabinet ministers are also normally members of the parliament. The role of the Head of State is largely ceremonial, a monarch or a president elected by the legislature. The political power is vested within the council or cabinet of ministers headed by the Prime Minister. In most countries with parliamentary government, the chief executive is called the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is the leader of the largest party in parliament. The prime minister is not elected by voters but is nominated by the majority party and then formally administered the oath of office by the official head of state who may be the king or queen of a monarchy or the president of a republic. The Prime Minister selects his or her ministers. The head of government and the head of state are two different persons. For instance, the Prime Minister is the head of the government and the king or president is the head of state. Today, the duties of the head of state have often been reduced to purely ceremonial duties, or merely to perform official appointments. In contrast, most presidents carry the responsibility and authority of both head of government and state.

2. Presidential government In a presidential government, the chief executive participates far more directly in the decisionmaking and can exercise a considerable degree of power. The forms of presidential government vary, but in many countries, the president is elected separately from, and independent of, the legislative branch. They are commonly elected for a fixed term often four years while the Prime Minister of a parliamentary government has to resign if the parliament does not support the government's policies and calls for a vote of "no confidence." The judicial branch functions independently. The president is separate from the legislative body. A presidential system separates the executive and legislative functions of the government and provides what are commonly called checks and balances to limit the power of both the chief executive and the legislature. The president and members of the legislature are elected separately by the people. A presidential government features an executive president directly elected by the people, who heads the state and the government. They cannot be removed by the legislature except in extraordinary circumstances through an impeachment process. Their constitutional term limit normally ranges from 4 to 7 years. Many such systems limit the number of terms a president can

serve. The President appoints some members of their cabinet ("Ministers", "Secretaries") at their discretion. However some offices may need to be approved through parliamentary hearings. All cabinet members are accountable to the President, but are normally answerable also to the parliament. This is referred to as parliamentary oversight. 3 Unitary government This is a form of government where a country is governed as one single unit and power is concentrated in the central government. The political power of government in such states may well be transferred to lower levels, to national, regional or local elected assemblies, governors and mayors (devolved government), but the central government retains the principal right to recall such delegated power. In a unitary state, sub-national units are created and abolished and their powers may be broadened and narrowed, by the central government. Although political power in unitary states may be delegated through devolution to local government by statute, the central government remains supreme; it may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail their powers. The central government possesses much authority and decision-making power. Local governing bodies simply serve as administrative arms of the central government. In Great Britain, individual British counties have little of the power commonly exercised by American states. France, with 90 departments grouped into 36 provinces, also has a unitary form of government. It is important, however, to note that unitary governments are not inherently less democratic than other forms of governments. The United Kingdom is an example of a unitary state. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland which, along with England are the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom, have a degree of autonomous devolved power the Scottish Government and Scottish Parliament in Scotland, the Welsh Government and National Assembly for Wales in Wales, and the Northern Ireland Executive and Northern Ireland Assembly in Northern Ireland. But such devolved power is only delegated by Britain's central government, more specifically by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which is supreme under the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy. Further, the devolved governments cannot challenge the constitutionality of acts of Parliament, and the powers of the devolved governments can be revoked or reduced by the central government (the Parliament with a government comprising the Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister). 4. Federal government This is a system of a government where a country comprises of a number of partially selfgoverning states or regions united by a central ("federal") government. In a federation, the selfgoverning status of the constituent units is typically guaranteed in the constitution and may not be altered unilaterally by the central government. In federal governments, states or other sub-national units share sovereignty with the central government, and the states constituting the federation have an existence and power functions that cannot be unilaterally changed by the federal government. In some cases, it is the federal government that has only those powers expressly delegated to it. In a federal government, power is split between a central government authority and its constituent states. Usually, an overriding law of the land, known as a constitution, allocates duties, rights, and privileges to each level of government. The constitution usually defines how

power is shared between national, state, and local governments; the power to amend this constitution is usually granted to the citizens or their governmental representatives. The United States is an example of a federal state. Under the U.S. Constitution, power is shared between the U.S. federal government and the U.S. states, with the states delegating power to the federal body. Many federal states also have unitary lower levels of government; while the United States is federal, the states themselves are unitary under Dillon's Rule: counties and municipalities have only the authority granted to them by the state governments under their state constitution or by legislative acts. Devolution (like federation) may be symmetrical, with all sub-national units having the same powers and status, or asymmetric, with regions varying in their powers and status. The United States is unique in its federal system of government, in which power and authority are shared and exercised by national, state, and local governments. But if the model is not suited to other nations, there are still lessons to be learned. The further government is from the people, the less effective it is and the less it is trusted. By having local and state governments, Americans can see some of their elected officials up close. They can tie policies and programs directly to the men and women who enacted them and who implement them. In addition, decentralization of authority makes it all that much harder to effect an illegitimate takeover of the government. The principle that democracies ought to decentralize power and responsibility may not matter much in a small and relatively homogeneous country, but it can be an important safeguard in large and heterogeneous nations. 5. Military governments Military government is a type of a government where there is administration of occupied territory by an occupying power, including the exercise of executive, legislative, and judicial authority. In international law, territory is considered occupied when it is actually under the authority of hostile armed forces. The necessity for military government arises from the failure or inability of the legitimate government to exercise its functions. It is immaterial whether or not the government over an enemys territory consists of a military or civil or mixed administration. It is in connection with belligerent occupation that the general concept of military government evolved. Military government may be broadly characterized as the administration or supervision of territory after invasion, conquest, or otherwise being brought under the control of foreign armed forces; a condition which is called military occupation. A country that establishes a military government and violates internationally agreed upon norms runs the risk of censure, criticism, or condemnation in the face of international world. In the current era, the practices of military government have largely become a part of customary international law, and form a part of the laws of war. This government is established during or after military occupation by the victorious country in an armed conflict. The territory that has been placed under the authority of a hostile army continues

to belong to the state that has been ousted. However, it may be ruled by the occupiers under a special regime.

6. Governments of National Unity National unity government is a broad coalition government consisting of all parties or all major parties in the legislature, usually formed during a time of war or other national emergency. It is a government formed by a coalition of parties especially in time of national emergency. This requires that any party holding twenty or more seats in the National Assembly could claim one or more cabinet portfolios and enter the government; the executive prime minister, while the cabinet is constituted of 40 ministers and 52 deputy ministers from both rivals' parties. The term only refers to a case in which all the major political parties in a country are part of the governing coalition. As of 2008, Kenya is governed by Government of National Unity between the rival Party of National Unity of Mwai Kibaki and the Orange Democratic Movement of Raila Odinga following the 2007 presidential election and subsequent violence. This was due to the ODM winning the majority of seats in the National Assembly, but controversially losing the presidential election by a margin that has since been called into question for its validity. This was formed through negotiations between the Orange Democratic Movement's leader and presidential candidate Raila Odinga and Party of National Unity's leader and incumbent presidential candidate Mwai Kibaki in the aftermath of the ethno political violence which had followed the flawed and controversial presidential election of the previous year. Kibaki sits as the president of the cabinet, while Odinga sits as a non-executive prime minister, while the cabinet is constituted of 40 ministers and 52 deputy ministers from both rivals' parties. The deal for the creation of the cabinet was finalized on 13 April 2008, followed by the appointment of Odinga as prime minister on 14 April and the swearing-in of all members of the cabinet on 17 April.

7. Coalition governments A coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several political parties cooperate together on terms. Two or more political parties join together in parliament/assembly to run the government and agree on a policy programme which guides their activities. The usual reason given for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the parliament. In such cases, the only way that policy gets approved is by each side making concessions. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty or crisis, for example during wartime, or economic crisis, to give a government the

high degree of perceived political legitimacy, or collective identity it desires whilst also playing a role in diminishing internal political strife. In such times, parties have formed all-party coalitions which are termed as national unity governments. If a coalition collapses, a confidence vote is held or a motion of no confidence is taken. It is a governing body formed by multiple parties who must compromise on certain principles. Several political parties must cooperate to run a country or region. These types of governments are often considered somewhat weak because there is no majority party. In such cases, the only way that policy gets approved is by each side making concessions. These can be one of the most entertaining and volatile forms of government. Often, it might be difficult to know how an issue is going to turn out, unlike in some countries where there are two major political parties. In those cases, it is rare when a majority party does not get its way. Well-known countries that have been run by coalition governments include Germany, Italy, India, Ireland and Israel, among others. After a parliament is seated in these countries, the difficult work of bridging gaps begins. These gaps are bridged more easily than in others in some cases because several parties might be in agreement on some issues. In other cases, where there is little agreement, building a coalition takes time. Proponents believe that a coalition government can lead to greater unity because members of varying backgrounds and ideologies must come together and agree to create policies in the best interest of all. In addition to long-standing coalitions, a coalition government also can be created at a time of national transition or crisis. In Iraq, for example, a coalition government was created in 2004 in an effort to bring the country together after the fall of Saddam Husseins government. In this example, various leaders from different religious sects and regions of the country were brought together in an attempt to create policies that would be regarded as beneficial to the Iraqi people as a whole, not just one particular group. To deal with a situation in which no clear majorities appear through general elections, parties either form coalition cabinets, supported by a parliamentary majority, or minority cabinets which may consist of one or more parties. Cabinets based on a coalition with majority in a parliament, ideally, are more stable and long-lived than minority cabinets. While the former are prone to internal struggles, they have less reason to fear votes of non-confidence. Majority governments based on a single party are typically even more stable, as long as their majority can be maintained. Coalition cabinets are common in countries in which a parliament is proportionally representative, with several organized political parties represented. It usually does not appear in countries in which the cabinet is chosen by the executive rather than by a lower house, such as in the United States (however, coalition cabinets are common in Brazil). In Germany, for instance, coalition government is the norm, as it is rare for either the Christian-Democratic Union of Germany and Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CDU/CSU) or the Social Democratic Party of

Germany (SPD) to win an unqualified majority in a national election. Thus, at the federal level, governments are formed with at least one of the smaller parties.

5.0 CHALLENGES TO ATTAINMENT OF DEMOCRACY

1. Political instability
Democracy is criticized for not offering enough political stability in countries under discussion. As governments are frequently elected on and off ,there tends to be frequent changes in the policies of democratic countries. Even if a political party maintains power, headline grabbing protests and harsh criticism from the mass media are often enough to force sudden, unexpected political change. Frequent policy changes with regard to business and immigration are likely to deter investment and so hinder economic growth. For this reason, people have put forward the idea that democracy is undesirable for a developing country in which economic growth and the reduction of poverty are top priorities. This opportunist alliance not only has the handicap of having to cater to too many ideologically opposing factions, but it is usually short lived since any perceived or actual imbalance in the treatment of coalition partners, or changes to leadership in the coalition partners themselves, can very easily result in the coalition partner withdrawing its support from the government.

2. Foundational Challenge
Different countries face different kinds of challenges. At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. These countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state. For example, Nepal was under Monarchy till recent times. Now Nepal has changed to a democratic system. Certain mindsets and systems will take years to change as they have taken years to develop. Nepal is a very good example of foundational challenge of democracy.

3. Challenge of Expansion
Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and

various institutions. Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge. This also means that less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Most countries including India and other democracies like the US face this challenge. In India certain socio-economically backward groups have yet to get the political powers. Additionally, some north-eastern states have not yet fully integrated with the mainstream India. These are examples of challenge of expansion of democracy.

4. Deepening Of Democracy
Strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy are hard to root in a nation embracing this. This should happen in such a way that people can realise their expectations of democracy. But ordinary people have different expectations from democracy in different societies. In the early nineties, when T N Sheshan became the Chief Election Commissioner, he brought about a revolutionary change of disciplining political parties. This in turn ensured fairer elections. This is an example of strengthening a particular political institution.

5. Women Participation
Despite countries claiming to be democratic, majority of them have few or none women representatives. In the outcry that states equality women rarely take part in the democratization process gaining support from critics who question the fundamentals that define democracy.

6. Inadequate and Inappropriate International Approaches In Supporting Democratic Development.

The delivery of international support is not always compatible with the intrinsic values of democracy itself. It is debated whether the process through which international support is delivered has as its ultimate goal a democratic outcome and if the instruments used and procedures followed can be deemed democratic. When they are not, democracy support is likely to become problematic.

7. Illiteracy
One of the greatest challenges in a democratic form of government is ensuring that the electorate is well educated and engaged. Since democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people, it depends upon the people to play an active and informed role in their own government. Literacy is one of the pillars of a sustainable democratic government as the people are on the knowhow on issues pertaining to the government. If majority of the people become uneducated, ill informed, subject to gross political manipulation, or apathetic, an effective democratic government cannot survive.

8. Corruption
Modern day democracies are faced with the issue of non accountability and many leaders are accused of grabbing national assets for their own use leaving the average citizens to fend for themselves. It contributes to economic decline, and poverty levels in the country go on the rampage.

9. Insecurity
Countries face violent conflict, mostly due to ethnic strife and tribalism especially challenges democracy. An example is given of Rwanda and Kenya after the general elections the countries were locked in semi-wars where average citizens were duly affected. Issues to do with external attacks, internal ones such as grenade scares, scare case and cases like cattle rustling among others.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, we are seeing democracy touching the very fundamentals of the life of human beings in society, thus giving rise to much written comments and reflection. This concept is probably in some way frozen by the opposition between plain or "formal" democracy and "popular" democracy which was current until recently in world-wide multilateral circles. These times are past; democracy now seems to be the subject of broad consensus and its promotion is high on the agenda of international bodies. It has several principles which work hand in hand for a certain government to qualify to be a democratic government. It is the institutionalization of freedom. For this reason, it is possible to identify the time-tested fundamentals of constitutional government, human rights, and equality before the law that any society must possess to be properly called democratic. REFERENCES

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