NH 67, Karur Trichy Highways, Puliyur C.

C.F, 639 114 Karur District DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY CS 2202 DIGITAL PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEM DESIGN

*The NPTEL material on digital circuits for the IT branch-3rd Semester is available here.
UNIT 1 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES Review of binary number systems Binary arithmetic Binary codes Boolean algebra and theorems Boolean functions Simplification of Boolean functions using Karnaugh map and tabulation methods Logic gates INTRODUCTION The world of electronics is divided into two areas: analog and digital. Analog circuits consist mainly of amplifiers for voltage or current variations that are smooth and continuous.

Digital circuits provide electronic switching of voltage pulses. A pulse has abrupt changes between two extreme amplitude levels (i.e.: 5 volt = high level and 0 volt = low level).

Since the digital signal has only two significant levels, either high or low, it is useful to represent the pulses in a binary number system with the digits 1 and 0. Digital electronics are electronics systems that use digital signals. Digital electronics are used in computers, mobile phones, and other consumer products. Digital electronics or any digital circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates, simple electronic representations of Boolean logic functions. Advantages of digital system 1. Digital systems interface well with computers and are easy to control with software. New features can often be added to a digital system without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be corrected after the product is in a customer's hands. 2. Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise-immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly.

1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM

There are four important number systems which you should become familiar with. These are decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal. The decimal system, which is the one you are most familiar with, utilizes ten symbols to represent each digit. These are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This system is referred to as base 10, or

radix 10 system. Similarly, the binary system is base 2, octal is base 8, and hexadecimal is base 16 as shown in the following Table Number System Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Radix 2 8 10 16 Symbols 01 01234567 0123456789 0123456789ABCDEF

Table below shows an example of counting from 0 to 18 in each of the four number systems. Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Number Conversion Working in binary can become very cumbersome and prone to errors. It is important to learn how to convert from one system to another. Let us take the binary pattern 1011101 as an example. If we are working predominantly in the octal system, we would break this into groups of three bits, starting from the right 1011101 = 1 011 101 = 1358 Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 10000 10001 10010 Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 22 Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12

The subscript 8 is used to indicate that it is the octal representation. After converting to octal, the conversion to base 10 is simplified. Mathematically, the decimal value can be computed as (1 82) + (3 81) + (5 80) = 93. However, in a computer program it would be more efficient to use an iterative algorithm. Thus the result is computed as: ((1 8) + 3) 8 + 5 = 93. Conversion to Binary Converting an octal or hexadecimal number to its binary representation is straight forward. For example: 3618 = 011 110 0012 1A416 = 0001 1010 01002 Converting a decimal number to its binary representation is slightly more complex. It is simplified if you convert the decimal number to its octal or hexadecimal equivalent first. For example, let us find the binary representation of 144910. First, we shall convert it to its octal representation.

1.2 Binary number system

The native language of digital computers is inherently binary. Thus, numbers are naturally represented as binary integers by the computer. The range of numbers which can be represented is dependent on the number of bits used. A common unit of storage is a byte which is a group of eight bits. Eight bits can represent 28 unique states, i.e. 256 possible combinations. This fact can be used to our advantage to represent many different things on the computer. For example, a byte can be used to represent 256 colours, 256 shades of grey, 256 shapes, 256 symbols, 256 names, or even 256 different numbers. More typically, we can use a byte to represent 256

sequential numbers such as the numbers from 1 to 256, or the numbers from 0 to 255. Remember that 0 is not "nothing" and has equal significance as any other number. Signed Integers One of the eight bit is reserved to indicate the sign of the number. Following usual convention, the left-most bit (called the most significant bit or MSB) is dedicated as the sign bit. For the numbers from -128 to 127, there are 256 unique numbers in this range. With this scheme, we can now have 128 positive and 128 negative numbers, typically the numbers from 0 to 127. This scheme has the anomaly that there are two unique representations for positive and negative zero. A more serious problem is that the rules of binary arithmetic breakdown when we decrement by 1 from positive to negative numbers. To overcome the discontinuity at zero, a scheme of

complementary binary is used whereby negative numbers are represented by the binary complement of the positive representation. This system is called one's complement binary. This system also has two unique representations for positive and negative zero. The two's complement binary system overcomes both problems mentioned above. In this notation, the negative number is represented by forming the binary complement of the positive number and adding one. To summarize, integers are commonly represented by the unsigned binary and the 2's complement binary representations. The range of integer numbers can be extended by utilizing more bits. For example, 16 bits will allow us to represent 216 unique items, i.e. 65536 possible states. These can be the numbers from 0 to 65535 for unsigned integers or -32768 to 32767 for 2's complement signed integers

00011001 ------------ +25 10011001 ------------ -25 11100110 ----------- -25 11100111 ----------- -25 SIGN- MAGNITUDE form 1s compliment form 2s compliment form

1.3 Binary Arithmetic

It shows the way in which the manipulation of bits inside the logic units or devices being carried out. Binary Addition The rules for binary integer arithmetic follow the same rules as for decimal numbers. 1+0 = 1 1+1 = 10 1+1+1 = 11 Binary Subtraction =0 1-1 = 0 1-0 = 1 0-1 = 1 (Ex) Borrowing 1 makes 0 to 10. Sum = 0 ; Carry = 1 Sum = 1 ; Carry = 1

Binary Multiplication Usually, two other logic functions, left shift and right shift, are provided since these are also easy to implement in hardware. When a number is shifted by one digit to the left, for example, 123 left shifted becomes 1230, this is equivalent to multiplying the number by the radix, whatever it may be. Similarly, 123 shifted to the right is 12.3 and this is the same as dividing by the radix. In binary, shifting left by one bit is equivalent to multiplying by 2. Shifting right by one bit is the same as dividing by 2. To find 2941 x 318, the first number is called the multiplicand and the second is the multiplier, there are two ways depending on which end of the multiplier we begin with. The following should look familiar: 2941 318 23528 29410 882300 935238

2941 8 = 29410 1 = 294100 3 =

A less familiar method is the following where we start with the left digit of the multiplier: 2941 3 = 8823 100 = 882300 2941 1 = 2491 10 = 24910 2941 8 = 23528 1 = 23528 935238 In both cases, the product can be formally stated as the sum of partial products as follows:

2941 318 = (2941 3 102 ) + (2941 1 101 ) + (2941 8 100 ) Multiplication in binary (or any other radix) can be performed using the same technique as for decimal. Both methods shown are easily implemented in binary on a digital computer. In the examples shown above, the partial products are first formed and the summation is done at the end. In a computer algorithm this is not the usual case since it is more efficient to sum the partial products as they are formed. In special processors optimized for speed, such as digital signal processors (DSP), dedicated hardware to do this is called a multiply and accumulate register (MAC). Multiplying in binary follows the same rules. 111 x 101. follows: (111 1 22 ) + (111 0 21 ) + (111 1 20 ) With binary arithmetic, the task of multiplying by 2 is simply a shift of one bit to the left. Similarly, dividing by 2 is a shift of one bit to the right. Binary Division Division in binary follows the same concept as for long division in decimal (Ex) This can be formulated as

1.4 Boolean Algebra

George Boole (1854) invented a new kind of algebra that could be used to analyse and design digital and computer circuits. 1.4.1 Boolean laws and theorems Certain rules and theorems are defined to facilitate the simplification of Boolean expressions inturn making the simpler logic circuits with reduced number of gates. Basic laws Commutative law: A+B =B+A AB = BA

Associative law: A + (B+C) = (A+B) + C A(BC) = (AB)C

Distributive law: A (B+C) = AB + AC

Boolean relations about OR operations A+0=A A+A=A A+1=1 Boolean relations about AND operations A'1=A A'A=A A'0=0 1.4.2 Postulates 1. Identity Identity elements exist for each operation that leaves the result unchanged. A+0 = A A.0 = 0 A+1 = 1 A.1 = A

An operation between two identical variables will yield a result that is unchanged A+A = A A.A = A 2. Inverse For every element, there is an inverse or complement with the following properties A.A= 0 A+A = 1 3. The complement of a complement gives back the original quantity (A) = A 1.4.3 Application: It provides the systematic mathematical approach to study, design and analyze the logic circuits. Boolean expressions enables the design and simplification of logic circuits. 1.5 Logic Gates 1.5.1 NOT operation

Fig. 2-1: Inverter symbol and Boolean notation Ex: If A is 0 (low) ' X = NOT 0 = 1 In Boolean algebra the overbar stands for NOT operation. 1.5.2 OR operation

Fig. 2-2: OR symbol and Boolean notation

Ex: If A = 0, B = 1 ' X = A or B = 0 or 1 = l In Boolean algebra the + sign stans for the OR operation: X=A+B Ex: If A = 1, B = 0 ' X = A + B = 1 + 0 = 1 1.5.3 AND operation

Fig. 2-3: AND symbol and Boolean notation In Boolean algebra the multiplication sign stands for the AND operation X = AB Ex: If A = 1, B = 0 ' X = A B = 1 ' 0 = 0 1.5.4 NOR gate Based on the three fundamental logic operations it is possible to design additionel logic devices.

Fig. 2-6: NOR gate, symbol and truth table

1.5.5 NAND gate

Fig. 2-7: NAND grate, symbol and truth table 1.5.6 XOR gate Events which are true only if and only if one of the motivating events are true Truth Table A B F 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

1.6 DE MORGANS THEOREMS 1. This states that the inverse (i.e.)of a product [and] is equal to the sum [or] of the complements

2. This states that the inverse (complement) of a sum [or] is equal to the product [and] of the complements These theorems can be extended to cover several variables:

1.7 Canonical and Standard forms Consider two binary variables x and y combined by an AND operation X. Y X. Y X . Y binary 0 X.Y binary 1 m x Minterm or standard product For n variables, there are in total 2n Minterms. For OR operation, X+Y X + Y X+ Y X + Y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 M0 M1 M2 M3 Mx Maxterm or standard sum 1 1 m3 And X Unprimed representing 0 0 0 1 1 0 m0 m1 m2 Where X Primed representing

Each Maxterm is the complement of corresponding Minterm. Boolean expression can be expressed in terms of Minterms and Maxterms as follows X 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 f1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1.7.1 Sum of minterms: Boolean expression for the function f1 from the given truth table is, f1 = XYZ + XYZ + XYZ = m1 + m4 + m7 ie) OR ing the minterms which gives 1 in the function f1 1.7.2 Product of maxterms: Similarly, f1 = (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) (X+Y+Z) M2 .M3.M5. M6 ie) AND ing the maxterms which gives 0 in the function f1 = M0 .

1.8 Karnaugh Map It is a systematic method to simplify Boolean expression using a map. Map is a diagram made up of cells where each cell gives the output value for the corresponding input combination. Totally there are 2n cells for n input variables. The map presents a visual diagram of all possible ways a function may be expressed in a standard form.

1.8.1 Two- and Three- variable maps A Two-variable map is shown below.

There are 4 cells for 2 variables. Each cell for a minterm. Figure (a) shows the minterms and (b) the relationship between the cells and variables. Example: F1 = XY is represented by this mapping method as,

Since XY is equal to m3, a 1 is placed inside the cell that belongs to m3. Similarly, F2 = X + Y as,

A Three-variable map is shown below.

Here 8 cells are not arranged in a binary sequence, but in a sequence similar to Gray code. The characteristic of this sequence is that only 1 bit changes from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 in the listing sequence. ie) the minterms in the adjacent cells are differing by a single bit. This is the basic principle behind K-Map and can be clarified by taking a function having m5 and m7 as, m5 + m7 = XYZ + XYZ = XZ(Y+Y) = XZ. Two minterms of 3 literals is solved into a single minterm of 2 literals. The two cells are considered to be adjacent even though they do not touch each other like m0 and m2. Example: #1) Simplify the Boolean function F(X, Y, Z) = (2, 3, 4, 5) Mark 1 in each minterm that represents the function. Find the adjacent cells (shown in two rectangles) Upper rectangle area is enclosed by the variables X and Y Similarly lower rectangle by variables X and Y

So the resultant function is F(X, Y, Z) = (2, 3, 4, 5) = XY + XY

1.8.2 Four- variable map A Four-variable map is shown below.

The minterm corresponding to each cell can be obtained by the concatenation of the respective row and column. For instance, third row (11) and second column (01) gives 1101, the binary equivalent of decimal 13 representing m13. The map minimization is the similar procedure as that of the three variable type.

No other combination of squares can simplify the function.

1.8.3 Five- variable map

Maps for more than 4 variables are not as simple to use. It needs 32 cells. A Five-variable map is shown below

It consists of 2 four-variable maps, where A distinguishes between two maps. Minterms 0 throgh 15 belong with A = 0 and Minterms 16 throgh 31 belong with A = 1. Each map retains adjacency when taken separately. Each cell in the A = 0 map is adjacent to the corresponding cell in the A = 1 map like 4 and 20, 15 and 31. Simply, for 2k adjacent squares, for k = 0,1,2..n, in an nvariable map will represent an area that gives a term of n-k literals. When n=k, the entire areas of the is combined to give the identity function.

1.8.4 Product of Sum simplification With minor modification, POS form is obtained as the result of simplification from the map. Simplified expression for the complement of the function,F, is obtained if the cells with 0s are combined into valid squares. The complement of F inturn gives us F in POS form.(By Demorgans Theorem) Ex: #1) Simplify the given Boolean expression in SOP and POS form. F(A,B,C,D) = (0,1,2,5,8,9,10)

Combining cells with 1s gives the SOP form, F = BD + BC + ACD Combining cells with 0s gives the form, F = AB + CD + BD Applyind Demorgans theorem, we get the simplified POS form F = (A + B) (C+ D) (B + D) Gate implementation of the function

F = BD + BC + ACD + D)

F = (A + B) (C+ D) (B

1.8.4 NAND and NOR Implementation NAND and NOR gates are easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families. So Boolean functions interms of NAND and NOR is necessory.

The invert OR symbol is followed from the Demorgans thoerem. Similarly for NOR gate,

A one-input NAND or NOR behaves like an inverter

1.8.4.1 NAND implementation Boolean expression in sum of product form is needed for NAND implementation. Consider for example, F = AB+CD+E is implemented in three ways as shown below.

Figure (a) and (c) looks similar but NAND implementation needs one more NAND gate for complementing E. By Demorgans theorem, F = [ (AB) . (CD) . E ] = AB + CD + E. Thus the two level implementation is possible with the NAND gates for the given Boolean expression.

1.8.4.2 NOR implementation NOR function is the dual of the NAND function. So all the procedures and rules for NOR logic are the dual of the NAND logic. Boolean expression in product of sum form is needed for NOR implementation. For the same example given above, F = (A+B) . (C+D) . E To obtain product of sum from a map, it is necessary to combine cells with 0s and then complement the function.

1.8.4.3 Dont-Care conditions The logical sun of minterms associated with the Boolean function specifies the condition under which the function is equal to 1. The function is equal to 0 for the rest of the minterms. Ie) all the combinations of variables are valid. In some practical applications the function is not specified for certain combinations of variables. For example four bit codes for BCD greater than 9 has six invalid combinations. These unspecified minterms are known as dont care conditions and used for further simplification. To distinguish dont care condition from 0 and 1, it is marked with X. Dont care cell is assumed to be 1 or 0 when choosing adjacent squares. Ex. #1) Simplify F(w,x,y,z) = (1,3,7,11,15) That has the dont care conditions d(w,x,y,z) = (0,2,5)

All the five 1s should be included to form the sum of products. But X may or may not be included. By including 0 and 2 dont care items, F = yz+wx By including 5 dont care item, F = yz+wz Expression in POS form is by grouping 0s and include minterms 0 and 2 to get it in the simplified version. F = z + wy Complementing F yields F(w,x,y,z) = z(w+y) = yz+wz For this case minterms 0 and 2 are included with 0s and minterm 5 with the 1s. 1.9 TABULATION METHOD If the number of variables exceeds five or six, excessive number of cells make the grouping difficult whereby the tabulation method is a step-by-step procedure.This method was first tabulated by Quine and later improved by Mccluskey. Hence it is known as Quine- Mccluskey method. It consists of two parts. First is to find the Prime implicants. Second to choose among the prime implicants those that give an expression with least number of literals.

Example 1) Find minimal SOP for f = (1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,14,15) Solution: i) write the given minterms in binary form minterm s 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 A 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 B 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 C 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 D 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

10 11 14 15 ii)

1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1

Arrange the numbers in increasing number of 1s No. Of 1s 1 minterms 1^ 4^ 8^ 3^ 5^ 9^ 10 ^ 7^ 11 ^ 14 ^ 15 ^ A 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 B 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 C 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 D 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

3 4 iii)

Compare adjacent groups to find numbers which differ by 1 variable.

^denotes the numbers undergone the comparision Combinatio n (1,3) ^ (1,9)^ (2,3)^ (2,10)^ (8,9)^ (8,10) ^ (3,7)^ (3,11)^ (9,11)^ (10,11)^ (10,14) ^ A 0 _ 0 _ 1 1 0 _ 1 1 1 B 0 0 0 0 0 0 _ 0 0 0 _ C _ 0 1 1 0 _ 1 1 _ 1 1 D 1 1 _ 0 _ 0 1 1 1 _ 0

(7,15) ^ _ 1 1 1 (11,15)^ 1 _ 1 1 (14,15)^ 1 1 1 _ _ denotes the differing variable position iv) Form 4 cell combination,by having adjacent group comparison, with 1 bit varying and _ in same position Combinatio A B C D

1 _ 1 _ ) From the above table no more combination is possible.

n (1,3,9,11) (2,3,10,11) (8,9,10,11) (3,7,11,15) (10,11,14,15

_ _ 1 _

0 0 0 _

_ 1 _ 1

1 _ _ 1

v) Prime Implicants table Prime Implicants (1,3,9,11)* (2,3,10,11)* (8,9,10,11)* (3,7,11,15)* (10,11,14,15 )* Essential Prime ^ ^ 1 X X 2 3 X X X X X X ^ ^ 4 5 6 7 8 9 X X X X 1 0 1 1 X X X X X 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

X ^

X X

Implicants Essential Prime Implicants is the one which has only one X in the column of minterms * mark is placed on the Prime Implicants which has Essential Prime Implicants inside. The resultant function consisting of Essential Prime Implicants and the Prime Implicants covering the remaining minterms. Here all the Prime Implicants are Essential Prime Implicants. Therefore Y = BD + BC + AB + CD + AC

1.10 Summary
First unit provides us the basics of digital number representation and manipulation.Also the coding methodologies used in various digital devices. It enables the one to simplify the boolean expression to arrive at a simpler logical circuit.

Self Test
1. A NOT gate has... a. Two inputs and one output output c. One input and two outputs b. One input and one d. none of above

2. A NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by.... gate. a. NOR b. NOT c. XOR d. none 3. Numbers are stored and transmitted inside a computer in a. binary form b. ASCII code form c. decimal form d. alphanumeric form 4. A gigabyte represents a.1 billion bytes 30 c. 2 bytes 5. .A parity bit is a. used to indicate uppercase letters errors c. is the first bit in a byte byte 6. 110012 -100012= a.10000 c.00100 b. 1000 kilobytes d. 1024 bytes

b. used to detect d. is the last bit in a

b.01000 d.00001

7. Which is correct expression? a. A.A=0 c. A+A=A 8. 23.6 10=.2 a.11111.10011 c.00111.101 9. Which of these are universal gates? a. only NOR c. both NOR and NAND 10. Boolean algebra obeys a. commutative law c. distributive law

b. A+1=A d. A.A'=1

b.10111.10011 d.10111.1 b. only NAND d. NOT,AND,OR b. associative law d. All the above

11. Which of the following is called as Demorgans theorem? a. A.A=0 b. A=A c. (A+B)=A.B d. A+A = A 12. In which of the following function, each term is known as minterm a. SOP b. POS c. Hybrid d. both SOP and POS 13. For the logic circuit shown, the required input condition (A,B,C) to make the output x= 1 is

a. 1,0,1 c. 1,1,1

b. 0,0,1 d. 0,1,1

14. 2s complement representation of 17 is a. 01110 b. 01111 c. 11110 d. 10001 15. Decimal 43 in hexadecimal and BCD number system is respectively a. B2, 0100 0011 b. 2B, 0100 0011 c. 2B, 0011 0100 d. B2, 0100 0100 16. x = 01110 and y = 11001 are two 5-bit binary numbers represented in twos complement format. The sum of x and y represented in twos complement format using 6 bits is: a. 100111 b.001000 c. 000111 d.101001 17. The output of Logic gate in the figure is

a. 0 c. A

b. 1 d. F

Answers for self test 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5.b 6. b 7.a 13. d14. b15. b16. c 17. c Review Questions 8. b 9. c 10. d11. c 12.a

Part-A
1. Find the hexadecimal equivalent of the decimal number 256. 2. Find the octal equivalent of the decimal number 64. 3. What is meant by weighted and non-weighted coding? 4. Convert A3BH and 2F3H into binary and octal respectively. 5. Find the decimal equivalent of (123)9. 6. Find the octal equivalent of the hexadecimal number AB.CD. 7. Encode the ten decimal digits in the 2 out of 5 code. 8. Show that the Excess 3 code is self complementing. 9. Find the hexadecimal equivalent of the octal number 153.4. 10. Find the decimal equivalent of (346)7. 11. A hexadecimal counter capable of counting up to at least (10,000)10 is to be constructed. What is the minimum number of hexadecimal digits that the counter must have? 12. Convert the decimal number 214 to hexadecimal. 13. Convert 231.3 4 to base 7. 14. Give an example of a switching function that contains only cyclic prime implicant. 15. Give an example of a switching function that for which the MSP from is not unique. 16. Express x+yz as the sum of minterms. 17. 19. What is prime implicant? What are minterms and maxterms? 18. Find the value of X = A B C (A+D) if A=0; B=1; C=1 and D=1. 20. State and prove Demorgans theorem. 21. Find the complement of x+yz. 22. Define the following : Minterm and Maxterm

23. State and prove Consensus theorem. 24. 25. gate? 26. gate? 27. Show that the NAND connection is not associative. 28. What happens when all the gates is a two level AND-OR gate network are replaced by NOR gates? 29. What is meant by multilevel gates networks? 30. Show that the NAND gate is a universal building block. 31. Show that a positive logic NAND gate is the same as a negative logic NOT gate. 32. Distinguish between positive logic and negative logic. 33. What is the exact number of bytes in a system that contains (a) 32K byte, (b) 64M bytes, and (c) 6.4G byte? 34. List the truth table of the function: 1. F = x y + x y + y z How will you use a 4 input NOR gate as a 2 input NOR What theorem is used when two terms in adjacent How will you use a 4 input NAND gate as a 2 input NAND squares of K map are combined?

Part-B
1. (a) Explain how you will construct an (n+1) bit Gray code from an n bit Gray code. (b) Show that the Excess 3 code is self complementing. 2. (a) Prove that (x1+x2)(x1x3+x3) (x2 + x1x3) =x1x2. (b) Simplify using K-map to obtain a minimum POS expression: (A + B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) 3. Reduce the following equation using Quine McClucky method of minimization F (A,B,C,D) = m(0,1,3,4,5,7,10,13,14,15)

4. (a) State and Prove idempotent laws of Boolean algebra. (b) using a K-Map ,Find the MSP from of F=(0,4,8,12,3,7,11,15) +d(5) 5. (a) With the help of a suitable example, explain the meaning of an redundant prime implicant. (b) Using a K-Map, Find the MSP form of F= (0-3, 12-15) +d (7, 11) 6. (a) Simplify the following using the Quine McClusky minimization technique D = f(a,b,c,d) = (0,1,2,3,6,7,8,9,14,15).Does Quine McClusky take care of dont care conditions? In the above problem, will you consider any dont care conditions? Justify your answer (b) List also the prime implicants and essential prime implicants for the above case. 7. (a) Determine the MSP and MPS focus of F= (0, 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15) (b) State and Prove Demorgans theorem. 8. Determine the MSP form of the Switching function F = ( 0,1,4,5,6,11,14,15,16,17,2022,30,32,33,36,37,48,49,52,53,56,63) 9. (a) Determine the MSP form of the Switching function F( a,b,c,d) =(0,2,4,6,8) + d(10,11,12,13,14,15) (b) Find the Minterm expansion of f(a,b,c,d) = a(b+d) + acd 10. Simplify the following Boolean function by using the Tabulation Method F= (0, 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15) 11. State and prove the postulates of Boolean algebra 12. (a) Find a Min SOP and Min POS for f = bcd + bcd + acd + abc + abcd 13. Find an expression for the following function usingQuine McCluscky method F= (0, 2, 3,5,7,9,11,13,14,16,18,24,26,28,30). 14. State and prove the theorems of Boolean algebra with illustration. 15. (a) Find the MSP representation for

F(A,B,C,D,E) = m(1,4,6,10,20,22,24,26) + d (0,11,16,27) using K-Map method. (b) Why does a good logic designer minimize the use of NOT gates? 16. Simplify the Boolean function F(A,B,C,D) = m (1,3,7,11,15) + d (0,2,5) .if dont care conditions are not taken care, What is the simplified Boolean function .What are your comments on it? Implement both circuits. 17. (a) F3 = f(a,b,c,d) = (2,4,5,6) F2 = f(a,b,c,d) = (2,3,,6,7) F1 = f(a,b,c,d) = (2,5,6,7) .Implement the above Boolean functions (i) When each is treated separately and (ii)When sharing common term (b) Convert a NOR with an equivalent AND gate 18. What are the advantages of using tabulation method? Determine the prime implicants of the following function using tabulation method. F( W,X,Y,Z) = (1,4,6,7,8,9,10,11,15) 23 (a) Explain about common postulates used to formulates various algebraic structures. (b) Given the following Boolean function F= AC + AB + ABC + BC Express it in sum of minterms & Find the minimal SOP expression.