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X + X units
Your final result is your best estimate for the value being investigated, whereas the confidence limits are the upper and lower limits between which you declare that you confidently expect the true value to lie.
The confidence limit or error conveys very significant information about the experiment and the result obtained. Its consideration is an indication of a sound experimental technique. We shall now consider the different types of errors, how to estimate and combine them and how to present them appropriately.
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PART II LABORATORY
Random errors can be investigated by taking repeated measurements.
a)
Repeated Readings
If you need to know the value of a quantity as accurately as possible, it is obvious that you need to check the result a few times. Repeating the measurement allows you to calculate the best value for the quantity being investigated and investigate the magnitude of the random errors by consideration of the statistical variation of the data set. The best estimate of the true value of the result is the arithmetic mean of the measured result
< X >=
1 N
Xi
i
An estimate in the uncertainty of the result comes from the standard deviation of the data. This is defined as the square root of the average of the difference between the recorded value and the mean. N is the number of points in the data set
2 =
(X
< X >) 2
( N 1)
For errors with a normal distribution we expect 68% of the recorded measurements to be within one standard deviation of the mean as so on.
b)
Reading Errors
Both the accuracy and precision of any real measuring device is limited. In first year laboratories you learnt that the precision is limited to perhaps to a quarter of the smallest scale on the instrument (ruler). The instruments used to measure quantities include rulers with Vernier scales, calipers and digital voltmeters. Each of these improves the precision to which values can be obtained however a reading error is still present. READING ERRORS (Parallax, Rulers, Vernier scales, digital voltmeters) A quick little reminder of a thing called parallax. It is important to align yourself with the instrument appropriately if you wish your results to be accurate.
Figure 14.1Parallax errors arising from the measurement of the length of an object. The apparent length, r2, in this case is shorter than the real length, r1. This would be the length if the measurement was taken with the ruler in contact with the object.
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Figure 14.2 The first scale can be read to the nearest 1 mm, while the second scale can be read to the nearest 0.1 mm.
The accuracy of the result will depend upon the accuracy of the measuring device you use. In Figure 14.2 we consider the length of a block of material. It is quite obvious that the accuracy of our result is greater in the second case. In the Second Year laboratories the accuracy of our result should be down to a quarter of the smallest division. This applies to both rulers and needle meters. If the results depend greatly upon the accuracy of this result you will find a Vernier scale or digital meter (both discussed below) more appropriate.
In order to read this scale Read the linear part of the measurement, in this case, from the zero of the Vernier. This is the first approximation to the measurement and yields a result of 3.5 mm. Next, determine which marking on the Vernier scale most nearly lines up with the markings on the linear scale. Do this by scanning your eyes across the scale and judging whether the Vernier scale is to the left or the right of the linear scale. When I cannot say left of right, I know that I have the alignment.
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PART II LABORATORY
In this case the 2 on the Vernier. This is the next significant figure. So the result is 3.52 mm. Finally, the smallest scale on the Vernier scale is 0.005 mm. This is the uncertainty in the measurement. Thus my final result would be (3.520 0.005) mm
DIGITAL VOLTMETER If you are using a digital voltmeter to record a voltage, it might be reading 1.004 volts, and the limit of the reading is 0.001 volts ( this is the smallest difference between readings which the device can resolve). We would then be tempted to claim the result to be 1.004 0.001 volts. Which would seem reasonable. HOWEVER the accuracy of the digital meters is less than the number of digits displayed would suggest, typically the accuracy is 1 digit plus some fraction of the reading (typically 0.3%). In this example the error is calculated as follows
V =
e.g. V = 3/1000 1.004 + 0.001 = 0.004012 So the final result plus confidence limit
error = 0.004
Figure 14.4 Schematic diagram showing the different types of errors and how they arise.
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GIVEN values should be treated with suspicion, and checked if possible; especially resistors that can vary 10% or more from their NOMINAL value Instructions for use of the apparatus should be read and followed. Make sure you know how to read the scales on the instruments. Identifying features of the apparatus should be recorded. If possible, vary the conditions at measurement slightly to avoid systematic errors. Use different rulers or section of a ruler to measure lengths of swap meters if possible. This data can be used in a discussion of systematic errors in your report.
OBSERVATIONS Measurements should be repeated by different observers to detect experimenter bias Corrections for instrument bias should be made if necessary ( e.g. incorrect zero setting on a meter Any necessary precautions (warm up times, step to avoid backlash in screw transports, temperature controls etc.) should be observed ANALYSIS The experiment should be carefully analysed for likely sources of error and steps should be taken to minimize these Theoretical arguments used in the derivation of relations for indirectly measured quantities should be checked for assumptions, and the assumptions checked for validity in the particular experiment Results should be checked for feasibility, and silly results recalculated. If they are still unreasonable then measurements must be take again.
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PART II LABORATORY
One may choose error bars with a magnitude of one or two standard deviations. This interpretation should be included in the description of the plot. In many practical cases the error in one of the pair (usually the independent variable often placed on the x-axis) is much less then that in the other. In these cases the error bar in the small error direction is often omitted but if this occurs a note should be made in the report. If more than one data set is plotted on the same graph, a different colored pen or different symbols should be used.
a)
In many cases it is sufficient to draw the single straight line which seems to lie closet to the largest number of experimental points. If one standard deviation error bars have been drawn then such a line should pass through at least 2/3 of these error bars. If two stand deviation error bars are used the line should pass through about 90% of the bars. See
The gradient is then calculated using the rise over run and the equation of a straight line.
y = mx + c
m=
rise y 2 y1 = run x 2 x1
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The uncertainty in the gradient can be calculated using the maximum and minimum gradient approach. Two lines are drawn, a steepest and most shallow line that fit the data, with fits meaning that they pass through 66% or 90% of the error bars for one and two standard deviation error bars respectively. The gradient is calculated for each line and the average of these is used as the estimate of the gradient.
gradient =
gradient =
b)
This technique is one of the most accurate techniques for obtaining the gradient of a line of best fit. SigmaPlot uses this technique to find the line of in its curve fit algorithm. This technique was developed by Gauss and assumes that all of the error is concentrated in the y co-ordinate, and asks For a line of the form y=mx+c, what values of m and c yield the smallest value for the sum of errors (differences between the point it predicts and the experimental point) squared. This technique minimizes the total distance between the points on a line of best fit and the experimental point to obtain a best fit.
14.4 SIGMAPLOT
SigmaPlot is a powerful and elegant software program used with the 2 nd Year physics laboratories within the school of physics. SigmaPlot, if you would have seen in the tutorial, enables you to take a data set and obtain an equation of best fit.
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PART II LABORATORY
The figure shown opposite is obtained in the tutorial. In this experiment particles with particular energy are binned in a particular ADC Channel Number. The role of SigmaPlot is to find out the relationship. Clearly this is roughly linear so we guess that the equation to be used in the transform is of the form y = mx +c.
Figure 14.7 Line of Best fit obtained using SigmaPlot in the Tutorial
When this transform is run, the following result box is produced. VALUE STDERR m 2.388e-2 3.411e-4 c 9.588e+0 3.355e-1
The primary results of interest are the parameters, namely m and c which tell us the equation of the line, the equation which best fits the experiment data is Note that m is given a value of 0.02388, with the associated error being 0.0003411. Hence the gradient could be expressed as 0.0239 0.0003. This can then be used to calculate the error of quantities derived from this result. For this and discussion of the rounding of errors and presentation of the final result, see the following few pages. The results are displayed in the result box, in five columns Parameter : The parameter names are shown in the first column Value : The calculated parameter values are shown in the second column StdErr:The asymptotic standard error of the parameters is displayed in column three. The standard errors and coefficients of variation (see next) can be used as a gauge of the accuracy of the fitted curve CV(%):The parameter coefficients of variation, expressed as a percentage, are displayed in column four. This is the normalised version of the standard errors. Dependencies:The last column shows the parameter dependencies. Parameters with dependencies near 1 are strongly dependent on one another. This may indicate that the equation(s) are two complicated and overparameterized, (too many parameters are being used) and a model with fewer parameters may be better.
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Z Z ) ( x) + ( ) ( y ) + ..... x y
2 2 2 2
Eq. 14.1
The squared terms in this function arise as a result of statistical theory, the depth of which is not appropriate for this reference see references for more detail. Every confidence limit you quote can be calculated using Eq. 14.1. The errors x, y, .. can be random errors such as the standard deviation from repeated measurements, reading errors from a Vernier scale, tolerance limits from a digital voltmeter or uncertainties in the gradient of a graph. All these errors combine together to give an error in the final result.
The example below illustrates the use of this equation and calculation of the final error.
a)
WORKED EXAMPLE
Consider the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of an unknown emission line. The formula is m = d sin() Thus
d sin m
We can now work out the errors. We are trying to find out if there are small errors (standard deviation, reading errors) in the variables m, d and , what is the resultant error in . We calculate the partial derivatives of with respect to d, m and and then use 1) sin d cos d sin = = = 2 d m m m m Thus
( ) 2 = ( d ) 2
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PART II LABORATORY
The last term was converted into radians. This allows you to enter the angle in degrees. Alternatively you could not include the (/180)2 term and enter the angle in radians. If we are given the d = 1710 2 nm m=1 q = 17.30 0.01 degrees Note that m is a DISRETE variable and so has no associated error with it. When all the terms are evaluated we get = 508.511 0.6595 nm = (508.5 0.7) nm
Finally, I shouldnt have to say this, but calculating an error is only half the exercise. Once the error has been calculated you must then discuss the not only the magnitude of the error and its significance but sources of error and what was done to minimize them. As I said earlier, a best result without an error is next to useless, but an error calculation without an explanation of what it means is pointless.
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GENERAL EXPRESSION Result Z depends upon x and y. Results error is calculated as follows SUMS AND DIFFERENCES If Z = x + y + .. or Z = x y ..
( Z ) 2 (
dZ 2 dZ 2 ) (X ) 2 + ( ) ( Y ) 2 + .. dX dY
then
(Z ) 2 = (X ) 2 + (Y ) 2 + ..
PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS If Z=xy then or Z=xy POWERS AND FUNCTIONS If Z = xN then
Z df X ( < Z > ) = | |<( X > ) df < ZZ > dX < XX > ( ) =| |( ) < Z > dX < > Note : This last category includes all the trigonometric functions. SubstitutedXangles must be in radians
SIMPLE AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS If Z = f(x) then unless you have included the (/180)2 term in the error derivation. A few of the errors to be calculated in the Second Year laboratories will require a combination of the above formulae. If you wish to use these formulae, then you must go through your specific case step by step. Alternatively you could use Eq. 14.1 which is relatively straight forward and easy to understand.
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