What Is A Concept Paper?

(a 1-page outline)
by Jim Spickard All research projects need a concept paper: a short summary that tells the reader what the project is, why it is important, and how it will be carried out. Even if no one else ever reads it, the concept paper helps a researcher spot holes in her or his project that might later prove fatal. It is far better to be clear at the beginning than to put in a lot of effort for naught! Typically, a concept paper contains these elements: 1. A clear description of the research topic, including a summary of what is already known about that topic. 2. A one-sentence statement of the research question that the project will seek to answer. (This is almost always something that is not known.) The concept paper should connect this question to the existing literature -- something that almost always takes more than one sentence to accomplish. 3. A demonstration of why it is important to answer this research question. What good comes of this answer? Why is this project worth anybody's time? 4. A description of how the researcher plans to answer the research question. This includes: a. a description of the data that the researcher plans to gather or use; b. a description of how the researcher will analyze these data; c. a demonstration of how these data and this analytic method will answer the research question; and d. a summary of any ethical issues that may arise in the research process. 5. A statement of the limitations of this research, specifically the things that it cannot discover (and why). 6. Longer projects -- term papers, masters' theses, dissertations, and professional research -also typically include a selected bibliography. Concept papers typically range from 2 to 5 double-spaced pages (500 to 1250 words), not counting bibliographies. Longer projects spend more time reviewing what is already known about a topic, typically drawing on several different scholarly literatures to do so. Shorter projects do not need such depth. Some projects, notably honors theses, dissertations and professional research, later develop the concept paper into a formal research proposal, which covers the above points in greater depth. Different advisors and granting agencies call for different amounts of detail. It is a rare proposal, however, that takes up more than 20 double-spaced pages (5000 words). A concept paper is a good first step in such proposal development. In any case, the point of a concept paper is to provide a clear summary of the research project. It should enable a casual reader to understand what the researcher is investigating, why it is important, and how the investigation will proceed.

REVISED 10/12/2005
By: Marie-Louise Strom

Youth Vote South Africa: No. 11 ELECTION CAMPAIGNS An election campaign is a huge communication and public relations exercise. This is how political parties reach out to the public at large and attempt to win as many votes as they can. Campaigns take very clever strategising and careful planning. Political parties spend several months preparing for a campaign before implementing it. As the advertising profession has

become ever more sophisticated, it has increasingly begun to influence election campaigns. However, if we go beyond the razzmatazz, campaigns can also be seen as a worthwhile public education exercise, enabling citizens to become better informed about the political life of the country. Campaigning serves a number of important purposes: Creating excitement As the election draws nearer, the campaigns help to stir up interest amongst citizens and to draw attention to the importance of the event. One of the major goals of an election campaign is to motivate people to vote, and not simply to be spectators of democracy. Publicising party policies The most important aim of an election campaign is to give visibility to a party and promote what it stands for. For this purpose, a party develops a manifesto that summarises its main policies. It also devises catchy slogans to capture the attention of voters and to convey key messages of the campaign. Popularising symbols Election time is a colourful time. Party colours and symbols are splashed over campaign materials and displayed at all events. Photographs of party leaders appear everywhere. In this way, the campaigns assist voters to identify the party of their choice when they receive their ballot paper on election day. The ballot paper includes symbols and photographs of the leaders of all parties contesting the election. ELECTION CAMPAIGNS: A MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS Citizens have grown rather cynical about election campaigns. There are probably two main reasons for this. Firstly, citizens complain that politicians only bother to communicate with them at election time. Very often they make over-large promises to win voters favour, and then disappear, not to be seen again until the next election. The other reason why citizens mistrust election campaigns is because of their increasing reliance on the techniques of commercial advertising. This tends to make campaigns feel superficial to many people and they are left wondering what to believe and what not to. Yet elections could not happen without campaigns. In spite of their downfalls, campaigns also provide an opportunity for citizens to become better informed and to engage in public debate around vital issues. The fact that campaigns extend over several weeks before an election takes place helps to ensure that the election is not taken lightly. Since general elections only happen once every five years, they deserve plenty of publicity and attention. The challenge for citizens is to make electoral campaigns work for them. One way of experiencing campaigns more positively is to see them as a kind of marketplace of ideas.

By: Marie-Louise Strom

When going to any market, a shopper is presented with all kinds of produce, as well as merchants trying to grab her attention. If she has a clear shopping list, it is easier for her to find her way around and not be distracted by merchants offering other wares. But the market environment requires her to be alert and decisive. If she wants to buy tomatoes, for example, she will consider offers from a number of different people, who will all try to convince her that their product or price is best. Finally it is up to her to make her own choice. Nobody can force her to buy from them. In fact, she can even decide not to buy anything at all. In the run-up to an election, parties put forward their proposals for how they would deal with some of the most pressing challenges facing our country. It is like a marketplace of political ideas. As voters we have the freedom to consider what all the parties have to offer before making our choice. Even if we know where our party loyalties lie, it can be informative to pay some attention to the campaigns of other parties. In this way, we can gain insight into the concerns and interests of people who are different to ourselves and the future they envisage for the country. ELECTORAL CODE OF CONDUCT Election time provides a bold challenge to citizens to respect the views of others. Under normal circumstances we generally choose to spend time with people whose opinions do not differ too widely from our own. However, during the election campaign period we are confronted by different political ideas at every turn. It is the sign of a mature democracy when citizens can allow different parties to campaign around them, without trying to shout them down or interfere with their activities. Even though we live in a democratic country, party loyalties run deep and it can sometimes be difficult to ensure that political competition unfolds in a tolerant atmosphere. To promote a free and fair environment, all political parties and their candidates are expected to sign a code of conduct when they register to contest an election. The code of conduct is a legal document and forms part of the Electoral Act. Its main purpose is to promote tolerance of democratic political activity, free electoral campaigning and open public debate. According to the code of conduct, every registered party and candidate must publicly state that everyone has the right: - to freely express their political opinions; - to challenge and debate the political opinions of others. The code of conduct ensures that every political party is free: - to produce and distribute campaign materials;

- to erect posters, banners and billboards; - to hold public meetings; - to canvass support and recruit members. According to the code of conduct, it is an offence for parties and candidates: - to use language that might intimidate people or provoke violence; - to publish false statements about another party or its candidates; - to copy or imitate the colours and symbols of other parties; - to discriminate on the grounds of race, ethnicity, sex, gender, class or religion. The code of conduct prohibits corruption and intimidation by making it an offence:
By: Marie-Louise Strom

- to bribe anyone to join a party, attend a meeting, vote or not vote in any particular way; - to carry or display weapons at political meetings or other public events; - to remove or destroy posters or other election materials belonging to any party; - to prevent access to voters in any area for the purpose of voter education or electoral canvassing. Finally, the code of conduct makes it a duty for parties: - to liaise with each other and ensure that their activities in a particular location do not clash; - to recognise the authority of the IEC and communicate effectively with its officials; - to accept the result of the election. ELECTION MANIFESTOS At election time parties prepare their manifesto to provide voters with a clear picture of what they stand for. A manifesto presents a broad programme for how a party intends to approach the most pressing issues facing the nation: poverty, jobs, the economy, crime, education, health care, etc. Parties generally choose a few key themes from their manifesto to focus their campaign and to help distinguish them from other parties in voters minds. CAMPAIGN STRATEGIES Parties use all kinds of strategies to sell their manifestos and convince citizens to vote for them. These combine direct communication with voters through face-to-face interaction and indirect communication using a wide range of media. Effective campaigns use different approaches to target different audiences. Because South Africa uses the system of proportional representation, the work of top party leaders is particularly visible during the campaigns. This is because individual candidates are not responsible for building their own support in specific constituencies. Rather, party leaders work together to present a unified message of what their party stands for. When election day arrives, voters will choose the party they wish to support, rather than a particular candidate. Rallies As the election approaches, party leaders tour the country, addressing big rallies in key

centres. Rallies generate plenty of publicity for a party beyond the community in which they are held. Party heavy-weights make speeches that are often covered by the national press. Entertainment helps to draw big crowds and the general excitement helps to stir up enthusiasm for the election. Visits and walk-abouts Party leaders make a lot more effort to interact with the public face-to-face at election time. Often they plan visits to sites that help to publicise key aspects of their party manifesto. The press is invited to cover visits to places like police stations and universities. Leaders are often shown meeting and greeting citizens during informal walkabouts in communities. This helps to give the election campaigns a human touch, as leaders listen to the questions and views of ordinary voters. House meetings and door-to-doors
By: Marie-Louise Strom

Party leaders and members at the local level work hard to build support by means of doortodoor canvassing. This is the most thorough way of campaigning, allowing canvassers the opportunity to explain party policies in detail if necessary in an attempt to convince voters. Party members also arrange house meetings to which they invite friends and neighbours. This direct interaction with voters in an intimate environment is often very effective. Posters, billboards and advertisements Obviously there is a limit to the number of meetings that party leaders can address during a campaign. Print media also form an essential part of a campaign. Posters with party slogans are displayed on lamp posts, billboards are erected in high-traffic zones and advertisements are placed in newspapers. Interviews and debates Parties also rely on the electronic media to provide publicity for their campaigns. Radio and television interviews allow party leaders to reach very large audiences. In South Africa face-to-face debates between party leaders at election time are not very common, but radio and television stations sometimes provide opportunities for such encounters. Pamphlets Another way of providing information to voters is by distributing pamphlets. These can be handed out at meetings and rallies, or at taxi ranks, shopping centres and other public places. They can also be dropped in post boxes or inserted into newspapers and other publications. Clothing Of course no campaign would be complete without all kinds of party clothing. T-shirts, caps, buttons, skirts and scarves carrying party symbols all add colour and flair to election events. Individual party members also use these to show their support and to encourage others to follow them in their choice.

CAMPAIGN FUNDING Running an election campaign is an expensive exercise. The cost of publicity materials, transport, venue hire and staff adds up very quickly. To contest an election, a political party needs considerable financial resources. The question of campaign funding has become a hotly debated issue in many democratic countries and has given rise to some serious problems. State funding In South Africa, political parties that are represented in parliament receive a certain amount of state funding each year. It is the responsibility of the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) to distribute this money to the parties from a special fund established for this purpose. Ninety percent of the fund is distributed to parties in proportion to their representation in parliament as well as the provincial legislatures. This means that the more seats a party occupies at national or provincial level, the more funding it receives. The remaining ten percent of the fund is distributed equally to all parties represented in the national and provincial legislatures. Parties are expected to provide a detailed account to the IEC on how they spend the money that is allocated to them. Parties that have registered with the IEC but do not hold any national or provincial seats do not receive any funding from the state.
By: Marie-Louise Strom

Some people feel that it is wrong for the state to provide financial support to any political parties, as this can lead to corruption. In spite of the dangers, there are also some important advantages to a system of public funding for parties. In order for democracy to flourish, a country needs strong political parties that are able to offer meaningful choices to voters. Providing state funds to the main parties helps to guarantee that a range of political voices will be heard in an election. Private funding The amount of state funding received by political parties in South Africa is not nearly sufficient to support all their activities, particularly at election time. This means that parties are obliged to raise additional funds from other sources. Party members contribute fees and other small amounts. In addition, party fundraisers seek larger donations from wealthy individuals and businesses to boost their resources. This is where the biggest danger of corruption creeps in. Donations are often made in return for promises of special favours from the party. There have been serious scandals in some of the worlds oldest democracies stemming from private financial support to political parties.

To help prevent this kind of corruption in South Africa, there are strong moves to introduce regulations on private funding for parties. In 2003, the Institute for Democracy in South Africa (Idasa) challenged the five biggest political parties in the country to reveal their sources of donations bigger than R50 000. Political parties opposed to the idea of disclosing their major funding sources argue that this will discourage donors from supporting them in the future. Only one of the parties (the smallest of the five) agreed to do this. In the end, Idasa decided to take the other four parties to court to force them to provide this information to the public. Although this action was controversial and the court case was lost, Idasa argued that openness about private donations would ensure that the votes of poor South Africans could not be undermined by powerful donors who might manipulate parties. PLANNING AN ELECTION FOR YOUR SCHOOL Code of conduct It is important to create a code of conduct for your school election and to ensure that it has the support of all participants. Decide who will draft the code and who must be consulted as part of the drafting process. Think about whether you also want to create any other rules to govern your school election (for example, the number of posters that can be displayed, or the number of speeches that can be made in assembly). Once the code has been finalised think of ways in which you can make it visible and binding on all. You may want to consider a public commitment ceremony during a school assembly. Alternatively, you could get groups and individuals contesting the election to sign the code of conduct personally. Campaign planning At this stage, groups and individuals contesting the election in your school should begin planning and implementing their campaigns. Parties or candidates should all develop an official manifesto. Think about whether the school will provide any support to the contesting
By: Marie-Louise Strom

groups and candidates (for example photocopying posters or dedicating a certain amount of class time to electioneering). OTHER CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1. Use a controversial issue to conduct an active listening exercise. A possible topic could be, Party politics should not be discussed at school. Ask learners to form pairs and get

each partner to argue either for or against the topic. After the first partner has spoken, the second partner should repeat what she/he has heard. Only then should the second partner present a counter argument. After that, the first partner should also repeat what she/he heard. Allow the pairs to continue in this way for a few rounds of discussion. 2. Get learners to write a reflective essay entitled, How tolerant am I when it comes to politics? To start them thinking, ask a few provocative questions like, Would you befriend someone from a political party you disapprove of? Would you attend a rally held by a political party different to your own? 3. Conduct a classroom discussion on the pros and cons of providing government funding to political parties.