WCM 602 Wireless Communication Project Report LTE

05/2012 Yazeed Alkharabsheh Shahriar Beizaee

LTE is a 3GPP standard that provides for an uplink speed of up to 50 megabits per second (Mbps) and a downlink speed of up to 100 Mbps. LTE will bring many technical benefits to cellular networks. Bandwidth will be scalable from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz this will suit the needs of different network operators that have different bandwidth locations, and also allow operators to provide different services based on spectrum. LTE is also expected to improve spectral efficiency in 3G networks, allowing carriers to provide more data and voice services over a given bandwidth. This paper provides an overview of the LTE physical layer (PHY), including technologies that are new to cellular such as Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) data transmission. Performance and capacity One of the requirements on LTE is to providedownlink peak rates of at least 100Mbit/s. The technology allows for speeds over200Mbit/s and Ericsson has already demonstrated LTE peak rates of about150Mbit/s. Furthermore, RAN (Radio Access Network) round-trip times shall beless than 10ms. In effect, this means that LTE more than any other technology already meets key 4G requirements. Simplicity First, LTE supports flexible carrier bandwidths, from below 5MHz upto 20MHz. LTE also supports both FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD(Time Division Duplex). Ten paired and four unpaired spectrum bands have sofar been identified by 3GPP for LTE. And there are more bands to come. Thismeans that an operator may introduce LTE in new bands where it is easiest todeploy 10MHz or 20MHz carriers, and eventually deploy LTE in all bands. Second, LTE radio network products will have a number of features that simplifythe building and management of next-generation networks. For example, featureslike plug-and-play,

self-configuration and self-optimization will simplify and reducethe cost of network roll-out and management.Third, LTE will be deployed in parallel with simplified, IP-based core and transportnetworks that are easier to build, maintain and introduce services on. Wide range of terminals in addition to mobile phones, many computer andconsumer electronic devices, such as notebooks, ultra-portables, gaming devicesand cameras, will incorporate LTE embedded modules. Since LTE supportshand-over and roaming to existing mobile networks, all these devices can haveubiquitous mobile broadband coverage from day one.Before jumping into a detailed description of the LTE PHY, its worth taking a look at some of the basic technologiesinvolved. Many methods employed in LTE are relatively new in cellular applications. These include OFDM, OFDMA,MIMO and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA).LTE employs OFDM for downlink data transmission and SCFDMA for uplink transmission. OFDM is a well-knownmodulation technique, but is rather novel in cellular applications. A brief discussion of the basic properties andadvantages of this method is therefore warranted. When information is transmitted over a wireless channel, the signal can be distorted due to multipath. Typically (but not always) there is a line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver. In addition, there are many other paths created by signal reflection off buildings, vehicles and other obstructions as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1 - Multipath is Caused by Reflections Off Objects Such as Buildings and Vehicles

Signals traveling along these paths all reach the receiver, but are shifted in time by an amount corresponding to the differences in the distance traveled along each path. To date, cellular systems have used single carrier modulation schemes almost exclusively. Although LTE uses OFDM rather than single carrier modulation, its instructive to briefly discuss how single carrier systems deal with multipath-induced channel distortion. This will form a point of reference from which OFDM systems canbe compared and contrasted.The term delay spread describes the amount of timedelay at the receiver from a signal traveling from thetransmitter along different paths. In cellular applications,delay spreads can be several microseconds. The delay induced by multipath can cause a symbol received along adelayed path to bleed into a subsequent symbol arriving at the receiver via a more direct path. This effect is depictedin Figure 2 and is referred to as inter-symbol interference (ISI).

Figure 2 - Multipath-Induced Time Delays Result in ISI

In a conventional single carrier system symbol timesdecrease as data rates increase. At very high data rates (with correspondingly shorter symbol periods), it is quitepossible for ISI to exceed an entire symbol period and spill into a second or third subsequent symbol.Its also helpful to consider the effects of multipath distortion in the frequency domain. Each different path length andreflection will result in a specific phase shift. As all of the signals are combined at the receiver, some frequencies withinthe signal pass band undergo constructive interference (linear combination of signals in-phase), while others encounterdestructive interference (linearcombination of signals out-of-phase). The composite received signal is distorted byfrequency selective fading .Single carrier systems compensate for channel distortion via time domain equalization. This is a substantial topic byitself, and beyond the scope of this paper. Generally, time domain equalizers compensate for multipath induceddistortion by one of two methods: 1. Channel inversion: A known sequence is transmitted over the channel prior to sending information. Becausethe original signal is known at the receiver, a channel equalizer is able to determine the channel response andmultiply the subsequent data-bearing signal by the inverse of the channel response to reverse the effects ofmultipath.

2. CDMA systems can employ rake equalizers to resolve the individual paths and then combine digital copies ofthe received signal shifted in time to enhance the receiver signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In either case, channel equalizer implementation becomes increasingly complex as data rates increase. Symbol timesbecome shorter and receiver sample clocks must become correspondingly faster. ISI becomes much more severepossibly spanning several symbol periods. The finite impulse response transversal filter is a common equalizer topology. As the period of the receiver sample clock () decreases, more samples are required to compensate for a given amount of delay spread. The number of delay taps increases along with the speed and complexity of the adaptive algorithm. For LTE data rates (up to 100 Mbps) and delay spreads (approaching 17 sec), this approach to channel equalization becomes impractical. As we will discuss below, OFDM eliminates ISI in the time domain, which dramatically simplifies the task of channel compensation. OFDM Unlike single carrier systems described above, OFDM communication systems do not rely on increased symbol rates in order to achieve higher data rates. This makes the task of managing ISI much simpler. OFDM systems break the available bandwidth into many narrower sub-carriers and transmit the data in parallel streams. Each subcarrier is modulated using varying levels of QAM modulation, e.g. QPSK, QAM, 64QAM or possibly higher orders depending on signal quality. Each OFDM symbol is therefore a linear combination of the instantaneous signals on each of the subcarriers in the channel. Because data is transmitted in parallel rather than

serially, OFDM symbols are generally much longer than symbols on single carrier systems of equivalent data rate.

Disadvantages of OFDM. As we have seen, OFDM has some remarkable attributes. However, like all modulation schemes, it suffers from somedrawbacks. OFDM has two principle weaknesses relative to single carrier systems: susceptibility to carrier frequencyerrors (due either to local oscillator offset or Doppler shifts) and a large signal peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR). Peak-to-Average Power ratio (PAPR). It is described as the envelope fluctuation of the OFDM carriers.As we know the system should operate in the linear region, so any large peaks cause saturation in the power amplifiers, which leads a non-linear distortion. The envelope variation in OFDM is due to the superposition of multiple channelsPAPR causes Intermodulation and Out-of-band radiation.

Figure 3 - Peak to Average Power Ratio

PAPR reduction methods. There are different ways to reduce PAPR either by clipping which is the simplest way. It is done by limiting the maximum amplitude but it is non linear process. As a result, it may cause significant in-band distortion (degrades BER) and out-of-band noise (reduces the spectral efficiency). Nonlinear effect of the clipper can be reduced by filtering.

Figure 4 - Clipper

Another way of reducing the PAPR is peak windowing. It is done by multiply the large OFDM signal peaks with a Shaping Window such as Gaussian, Cosine, Kaiser but The applied windows should be as narrow band as possible otherwise the spectrum will be affected.

Figure 5 Shaping Window

OFDMA LTE takes advantage of OFDMA, a multi-carrier scheme that allocates radio resources to multiple users. OFDMA uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). For LTE, OFDM splits the carrier frequency bandwidth into many small subcarriers spaced at 15 kHz, and then modulates each individual subcarrier using the QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64- QAM digital modulation formats. OFDMA assigns each user the bandwidth needed for their transmission. Unassignedsubcarriers are off, thus reducing power consumption and interference. OFDMA uses OFDM; however, it is the scheduling and assignment of resources that makes OFDMA distinctive. The OFDM diagram in Figure 6 below shows that the entire bandwidth belongs to a single user for a period. In the OFDMA diagram, multiple users are sharing the bandwidth at each point in time.

Figure 6 - Each color represents a burst of user data. In a given period, OFDMA allows users to share the available bandwidth.

SC_OFDMA In the uplink, LTE uses a pre-coded version of OFDM called SC-FDMA. SC-FDMA has a lower PAPR (Peak-to-Average Power Ratio) than OFDM. This lower PAPR reduces batterypower consumption, requires a simpler amplifier design and improves uplink coverage and cell-edge performance. In SCFDMA, data spreads across multiple subcarriers, unlikeOFDMA where each subcarrier transports unique data. The need for a complex receiver makes SC-FDMA unacceptable for the downlink.

Figure 7 - In OFDM, each frequency component carries unique information. In SC-FDMA, the information is spread across multiple subcarriers.

Frame structure Frame structure Ts is the basic time unit for LTE. Time domain fields are typically defined in terms of Ts. Ts is defined as Ts = 1/ (15000 x 2048) seconds or about 32.6

nanoseconds. Downlink and uplink transmissions are organized into frames of duration Tf= 307200 Ts. The 10 ms frames divide into 10 subframes. Each sub frame divides into 2 slots of 0.5 ms. in the time domain, a slot is exactly one Resource Block long. Two frame types are defined for LTE: Type 1, used in Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) and Type 2, used in Time Division Duplexing (TDD). Type 1 frames consist of 20 slots with slot duration of 0.5 ms.

Figure 8 - LTE Generic Frame Structure

LTE frame structure.

In LTE, ten 1 ms sub frames compose a 10 ms frame. Each subframe divides into two slots. The smallest modulation structure in LTE is the Resource Element. A Resource Element is one 15 kHz subcarrier by one symbol. Resource Elements aggregate into Resource Blocks. A ResourceBlock has dimensions of subcarriers by symbols. Twelve consecutive subcarriers in the frequency domain and six or seven symbols in the time domain form each Resource Block.

Figure 9 - Relationship between a slot, symbols and Resource Blocks.

The number of symbols depends on the Cyclic Prefix (CP) in use. When a normal CP is used, the Resource Block contains seven symbols. When an extended CP is used, the Resource Block contains six symbols. A delay spread that exceeds the normal CP length indicates the use

of extended CP. Channel Bandwidth is the width of the channel as measured from the lowest channel edge to the highest channel edge. The channel edge is the center frequency (channel bandwidth/2). Transmission Bandwidth is the number of active Resource Blocks in a transmission. As the bandwidth increases, the number of Resource Blocks increases. The Transmission Bandwidth Configuration is the maximum number of Resource Blocks for the particular Channel Bandwidth. The maximum occupied bandwidth is the number of Resource Blocks multiplied by 180 kHz. MIMO and MRC The LTE PHY can optionally exploit multiple transceivers at both the base station and UE in order to enhance link robustness and increase data rates for the LTE downlink. In particular, maximal ratio combining (MRC) is used to enhance link reliability in challenging propagating conditions when signal strength is low and multipath conditions are challenging. MIMO is a related technique that is used to increase system data rates. Figure 4shows a conventional single channel receiver with antenna diversity. This receiver structure uses multiple antennas, but it is not capable of supporting MRC/MIMO. The basic receiver topology for both MRC and MIMO is shown in Figure 10. MRC and MIMO are sometimes referred to as multiple antennas technologies, but this is a bit of a misnomer. Note that the salient difference between the receivers shown in Figures 2.4-1a and 2.4-1b is not multiple antennas, but rather multiple transceivers.

Figure 10 - MRC/MIMO Operation Requires Multiple Transceivers

With MRC, a signal is received via two (or more) separate antenna/transceiver pairs. Note that the antennas are physically separated, and therefore have distinct channel impulse responses. Channel compensation is applied to each received signal within the baseband processor before being linearly combined to create a single composite received signal. When combined in this manner, the received signals add coherently within the baseband processor. However, the thermal noise from each transceiver is uncorrelated. Thus, linear combination of the channel compensated signals at the baseband processor results in an increase in SNR of 3 dB on average for a two-channel MRC receiver in a noise limited environment.

Figure 11 - MRC Enhances Reliability in the Presence of AWGN and Frequency Selective Fading

Aside from the improvement in SNR due to combining, MRC receivers are robust in the presence of frequency selective fading. Recall that physical separation of the receiver antennas results in distinct channel impulse responses for each receiver channel. In the presence of frequency selective fading, it is statistically unlikely that a given subcarrier will undergo deep fading on both receiver channels. The possibility of deep frequency selective fades in the composite signal is therefore significantly reduced. MRC enhances link reliability, but it does not increase the nominal system data rate. In MRC mode, data is transmitted by a single antenna and is processed at the receiver via two or more receivers. MRC is therefore a form of receiver diversity rather than more conventional antenna diversity. MIMO, on the other hand, does increase system data rates. This is achieved by using multiple antennas on both the transmitting and receiving ends. In order to successfully receive a MIMO transmission, the receiver must determine the channel impulse response from each transmitting antenna. In LTE, channel impulse responses are determined by sequentially transmitting known reference signals from each transmitting antenna as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12 - Reference Signals Transmitted Sequentially to Compute Channel Responses for MIMO Operation

Referring to the 2 x 2 MIMO systems in Figure 13, there are a total of four channel impulse responses (C1, C2, C3 andC4). Note that while one transmitter antenna is sending the reference signal, the other antenna is idle. Once the channel impulse responses are known, data can be transmitted from both antennas simultaneously. The linear combination of the two data streams at the two receiver antennas results in a set of two equations and two unknowns, which is resolvable into the two original data streams.

Figure 13 - MIMO Operation Requires Priori Knowledge of all Channel Responses.

MIMO Dielectric Resonator Antenna for LTE Femtocell. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) released the 700 MHz spectrum in 2008, which waspreviously used for analog television broadcasting. A new nationwide wireless broadband network based on long-termevolution (LTE) technology proposed to operate inthe 700 MHz spectrum. In the LTE Evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access (E-UTRA) air interface, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technology plays an important rolein increasing the systems spectral efficiency. Giventhe lower operating frequency of the LTE system, as compared to the WiFi and cellular standards, the antenna in handheld devices such as a Smartphone or a Netbook must be electrically small. This implies the mobile antennas are likely to be inefficient and the coverage of the system is therefore limited. This is especially true if MIMO operation is needed at both mobile and base station since the antenna efficiency would be further reduced due to strong mutual coupling between closely packed mobile antennas. In view of this, LTE architecture includes a femtocell solution for coverage extension. Femtocells can be considered as low-power access points serving indoor areas.To exploit the richness in multipath propagation in indoor scenarios; it is desired to employ MIMO antennas with a very low mutual coupling as the base station antenna in a femtocell. One possible solution would be the orthogonally polarized MIMO antennas proposed in Chiu (2007). However, the problem is that such antennas would be oversized when scaled to operate at700 MHz. Hence, a new MIMO antenna solution for LTEs femtocell base station is necessary. One of the new proposed works is a 700 MHz dual-mode MIMO dielectric resonator antenna (DRA) that is suitable for the new wireless system. Although the cost of DRAs may be high as compared to traditional PIFAs or microstrip antennas, they have the advantages of compact size, high radiation efficiency, and wide impedance bandwidth. Another important

feature of DRAs is that the three-dimensional structure offers more degrees of freedom in exciting various orthogonal resonant modes, and each mode can be utilized to transmit and receive information independently. This makes the DRA an ideal candidate for application in MIMO communication systems.Indeed, a multi-mode usage of a single dielectric resonator has been suggested in Hady (2009), but the emphasis is not on MIMO applications. The concept of a MIMO DRA was first described and demonstrated by Ishimiya et al. in Ishimiya (2008). It was experimentally shown that a cubic MIMO DRA is able to achieve adiversity gain of about 10 dB and has comparable performance to traditional MIMO dipole arrays in practical IEEE 802.11nsystems. Nevertheless, in Ishimiyas papers, no explicit design method has been described. The major difficulty of applying DRAs in MIMO systems is to make various modes to resonateat the same frequency while maintaining low coupling between the modes. The key in MIMO DRA design is to induced generate modes (i.e., modes that have the same resonant frequency). Conventionally, only DRAs that exhibit symmetry can support degenerate modes and this limits any furthersize reduction of MIMO DRAs.

References 1. Jie-Bang Yan; Bernhard, J.T.; , "Design of a MIMO Dielectric Resonator Antenna for LTE Femtocell Base Stations," Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Transactions on , vol.60, no.2, pp.438-444, Feb. 2012 2. C.-Y. Chiu, J.-B. Yan, and R. D. Murch, Compact three-port orthogonally polarized MIMO antennas, IEEE Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 6, pp. 619622, 2007. 3. L. K. Hady, D. Kajfez, and A. A. Kishk, Triple mode use of a single dielectric resonator, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 13281335, May 2009. 4. K. Ishimiya, J. Langbacka, Z. Ying, and J.-I. Takada, A compact MIMO DRA antenna, in Proc. IEEE Int. Workshop on Antenna Technology: Small Antennas and Novel Metamaterials (IWAT 08), Chiba, Japan, Mar. 2008, pp. 286289. 5. K. Ishimiya, Z. Ying, and J.-I. Takada, A compact MIMO DRA for 802.11n application, presented at the IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Int. Symp., San Diego, CA, Jul. 2008. 6. LTE Resource Guide, www.us.anritsu.com 7. Overview of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution Physical Layer, www.freescale.com