J. Physiol. (1976), 262, pp.

639-657 With 7 text-figure8

Printed in Great Britain

639

THE SOURCES OF EXTERNAL WORK IN LEVEL WALKING AND RUNNING

By G. A. CAVAGNA, H. THYS * AND A. ZAMBONI From the Istitutodi Fisiologia Umana, Universital di Milano anrd Centro di Studio per la Fisiologia del Lavoro Muscolare del C.N.R., 20133 Milano, Italy

(Received 6 April 1976)

SUMMARY

1. The work done at each step during level walking and running to lift the centre of mass of the body, Wv, and to increase its forward speed, Wr, and the total mechanical energy involved (potential+ kinetic) Wext, have been measured at various 'constant' speeds (2-32 km/hr) with the technique described by Cavagna (1975). 2. At intermediate speeds of walking (about 4 kmlhr) Wv= Wf and Wextlkm is at a minimum, as is the energy cost. At lower speeds Wv > Wr whereas at higher speeds Wf > Wv: in both cases Wextfkm increases. 3. The recovery of mechanical energy, through the pendular motion characteristic of walking, was measured as (I WvI + WrI - Wext)/( WvI + Wf I): it attains a maximum (about 65%) at intermediate speeds. 4. A simple model, assuming that in walking the body rotates as an inverted pendulum over the foot in contact with the ground, fits the experimental data better at intermediate speeds but is no longer tenable above 7 km/hr. 5. In running the recovery defined above is minimal (0-4 % independent of speed), i.e. ext W + Wf: potential and kinetic energy of the body do not interchange but are simultaneously taken up and released by the muscles with a rate increasing markedly with the speed (from about 1 to 4 h.p.). 6. Wext increases linearly with the running speed 1f from a positive y intercept owing to the fact that Wv is practically constant independent of 14. On the contrary, Wf = aVJ2/(l + b 1f), where b is the ratio between the time spent in the air and the forward distance covered while on the ground during each step.
Present address: Universite de Liege, Institut Superieur d'Education Physique, Sart-Tilman, Liege, Belgium.
*

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640

G. A. CA VAGNA, H. THIYS AND A. ZAMBONI

INTRODUCTION

Forward speed changes and vertical displacements of the centre of mass of the body inevitably accompany human locomotion, even when the average speed of progression is constant and the track horizontal. They are mainly due to the interaction between the body and the ground and are responsible for kinetic and potential energy changes, which represent a large fraction of the mechanical work that the muscles must do to maintain locomotion (we call this fraction 'external' work). In walking, potential 'and kinetic energy changes are conveniently in opposite phases, as in a ' rolling egg' (Cavagna, Saibene & Margaria, 1963); in running, they are in phase, as in a 'bouncing ball' (Fenn, 1930; Cavagna, Saibene & Margaria, 1964); in both the work due to the kinetic energy changes increases progressively with the speed and eventually limits the maximal speed attainable. Were air resistance the only limiting factor, the velocity attained by man would be much greater (Cavagna, Komarek & Mazzoleni, 1971). The purpose of the present work has been to investigate the mechanism of the interaction between the body and the ground, in order to understand the origin of the external mechanical work done in walking and running at various 'constant' speeds (2-32 km/hr). With this aim the mechanical energy changes of the centre of mass of the body, taking place during the step, have been recorded with an improved technique (Cavagna, 1975).
METHODS Experiments were made with ten male subjects (22-39 yr old, 1-6-1P95 m tall and 59-91 kg body wt.: of these P.C. (78 kg, 1-77 m, 23 yr) was a national sprinter and M.S. (57 kg, 1-75 m, 22 yr) was a national middle-distance runner. The subjects wore gym shoes and walked or ran in a corridor, starting at different distances from a strain-gauge platform (4 x 0-5 m) which was sensitive to both the forward and the vertical components of the force applied to it by feet (further details of the platform and the attached apparatus are given by Cavagna, 1975). When on the platform the subjects were instructed to walk or run normally, keeping the velocity as constant as possible: to do so they could start up to 30 m from the platform and beyond it they had about 20 m to stop. As a result of the large dimensions of the platform used, it was possible to measure the resultant of the forces applied by both feet on the ground during walking: formerly (Cavagna & Margaria, 1966) the force exerted by only one foot could be recorded and it was necessary to add the forces exerted by each foot during the period of double contact assuming the steps were exactly equal. In addition, in the present experiments, it was not difficult to step on the platform and the step length could therefore be freely chosen by the subject. Output signals from the platform were conveyed to electronic integrators to determine the forward and the vertical velocity changes of the centre of mass of the body (cf. Fig. 1 of Cavagna et al. 1971 and of Cavagna, 1975); these were recorded on a magnetic tape and subsequently read every 5 msec by an analogue-to-digital converter; the resulting values, together with the average speed Rf, and the subject's body weight, were utilized by a computer to calculate the work against gravity,

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MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING

641

W,, the work due to the forward velocity changes, 1{, and the work due to the total mechanical energy changes of the centre of mass, W1,4t. In addition the computer operated a plotter to show how the potential energy (Ep), kinetic energy (Ek), and total mechanical energy (Ep + Ek) of the centre of mass oscillate during the step of walking (Fig. 1) and of running (Fig. 5). The procedure is similar in principle to that used by Cavagna et al. (1971) and is deE -ribed in detail by Cavagna (1975). The average speed of the subject, Vf, was measured by means of two photocells 2-7 m apart when walking and 3-5 m apart when running. The height of the photocells was adjusted to the height of the neck of the subject in order to prevent interference by the moving limbs, and their longitudinal position was such that the subject crossed them only when he was over the platform, never while contacting the ground before or after it. Since the displacements of the centre of gravity within the body and the 'tilting' of the trunk (Fenn, 1930) are small in comparison with the distance between the photocells, I' as measured should not differ appreciably from the average forward speed of the centre of gravity. The time, tdc, in which both feet were on the ground during walking was determined as follows. A small transmitter, carried at the waist, was connected by wires to metal gauze patches glued to the soles of the shoes of the subject. When both feet were on the ground the circuit was closed through the metallic surface of the platform and the transmitter operated thus giving rise to a square signal which was recorded together with the force and the velocity tracings. This procedure allowed the subject to move freely without being hindered by wiring to the recorder. The time interval, I, between successive signals of the transmitter was taken as the period of one step and the difference r- tdc =tc as the time of single contact. The step length was determined as L=Vf.T; the forward displacement of-the centre of gravity taking place when both feet were on the ground as LdC= f4. tdc and during the period of single contact as L,= 4.tc = L - LdC. In running, the duration of the step r, the period in which the subject was off the ground, t,, and the time of contact, t,, were easily determined from the platform records. The forward displacement of the centre of gravity during tc was taken as Lc = Vf. tc.
RESULTS

Mechanical energy changes of the centre of mass in walking At low and moderate speeds of walking the kinetic energy Ekf = mJ42 (m is the mass of the body) and the gravitational potential energy, Ep, change in opposite phase so that the sum ofthe two (Ep + Ekf) oscillates usually less than each one of the two components (Fig. 1). Taking into account also the kinetic energy due to the vertical component of the speed, V1, i.e. Ekv = mV2, one obtains the total mechanical energy (disregarding lateral motion) of the centre of mass of the body, Etot = Ep + Ekr + Ekv; its oscillations are smaller than those of Ep + Ekf. The increments of the curve Ekf indicate the positive work necessary to sustain the forward speed changes, Wr; the increments of Ep represent the positive work done against gravity, Wv; the increments of Etot represent the external positive work, Wext. External positive work is done in two phases of the step (increments a and b in Fig. 1): in one phase (a) to give a push forward, in the other (b) to complete the vertical lift. The external positive work done at each step is a + b. The records
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642 C. A. CA VAGNA, H. THYS AND A. ZAMBONI of Fig. 1 confirm the general conclusions reached previously with a less precise technique (Cavagna et al. 1963; Cavagna & Margaria, 1966) and give additional information about the work done in walking.
J-V
'I A 1--IL

Kt"1111-

Ekf

I
i

I'D KM/hr

a,

k_

50 cal

Ep+EkV,

I
5 4 km/hr
0 V

iI
6-2 km/hr
I

17 3 km/hr

I~

bO

-C

bO

I._
C

:
Ep+Ekf
92

I'xI
b

-C
U @1

km/hr

10-9

km/hr

133

km/hr

I,

Ik i
Time
-1

ji
1
sec

,VI

ba

Fig. 1. Experimental records of the mechanical

energy

changes of the

centre of mass of the body while walking at different speeds. The curves refer to subjects J. M. (3.0, 5 4, 7.3 and 10-9 kmfhr) and P. C. (4.5, 6-2, 9-2

and 13-3 km/hr): they were traced directly by a plotter operated by a computer. In each set of tracings: the upper curve refers to the kinetic energy, Ekf = Vf; the middle one to the sum of the gravitational potential energy, Ep, and of the kinetic energy Ek, = jm V, ; and the bottom one to the total energy, Etot = Elk + Ep + Ekv The curves Ep and Ep + Ekf are also given (fine lines) but often they cannot be distinguished from the Ep + Ek, and Etot curves because in walking EkV is very small. The arrows indicate the instant when the front foot contacts the ground (continuous) and when the back foot leaves the ground (interrupted). The changes of Ep and Ek largely cancel out in walking, that the muscles perform external positive work at each step just to give an additional push forward (increment a) and to complete the vertical lift (increment b): in this way they keep the 'egg rolling'.
jm

so

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MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING 643 The work done per unit time was calculated by multiplying the positive work done at each step by the number of steps per minute (Fig. 2). The values of power so obtained were then divided by the average speed V0 to obtain the work done per unit distance (Fig. 3). The data in Figs. 2 and 3 show that: (1) The positive external work done per unit distance reaches a minimum at about 4 km/hr. The interrupted line in Fig. 3 indicates that the net energy expenditure per unit distance also reaches a minimum at about 4 km/hr (Margaria, 1938). (2) The greater amount of external worklkm during walking at low speeds is due to a greater amount of work/km done against gravity: the work/km due to the changes in forward speed decreases steadily with speed. (3) At speeds greater than 4 km/hr We.t < Wr indicating that gravity helps the forward movement; at 4 km/hr Wext = Wf indicating that gravity plays a neutral role; below 4 km/hr Wxt > Wr, indicating that gravity hinders the forward movement. (4) At 7-8 km/hr an inflexion of the W, Wf and Wext vs. speed curves takes place due to a change in the mechanism of walking (see below).
Recovery of mechanical energy in walking In walking, gravity is used to accelerate forward the centre of mass of the body and the forward speed is used to raise it again the requisite distance (Cavagna et al. 1963). The useful effect of this shift between potential and kinetic energy has been measured from the difference between: (a) the sum of the absolute values WvI + WrI, giving the maximum work one should do without energy shift, and (b) the work actually done, Wext. This difference, expressed as a percentage of WVI + W4, i.e.

% recovery

=WvI+IWI-WextX100

is plotted in Fig. 4asafunction of the speed. A 100 % recovery would require the (Ep + Ekv) and Ekf curves (Fig. 1) to be exactly opposite in phase and of equal shape and amplitude; a 0 % recovery would require curves perfectly in phase. One can see that in walking a maximum recovery of mechanical energy (about 65 %) is attained at 4-5 km/hr. There is a good agreement between the speed at which maximum % recovery, minimum external work per unit distance, and minimum energy expenditure occur.

Mechanical energy changes of the centre of mass in running The records in Fig. 5 show that in running the muscular push propels the body simultaneously upwards (rise of Ep + Ekv) and forward (rise of Ekr). In consequence there is no possibility of a shift of Ep into Ekr and
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644

G. A. CA VAGNA, H.

THIYS AND A. ZAMBONI

eC4

l
a

0 R X be Hm
I

~~~~

I~~~~~c

~~~~~~~~~~~~

,v,,

%-

v-

(Ulw

JOMOd

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64 645 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNVNING vice versa, as in walking, and the recovery of mechanical energy is minimal: 0-4 % independent of speed (Fig. 4). The horizontal segments of the curves in Fig. 5 represent the periods in which the body is off the ground. After take off the kinetic energy El0, due to the vertical component of the push, is used to increase the potential energy until the maximal height of the trajectory of the centre of mass is attained: Ep is then re-transformed into Ek, and, since air resistance is neglected, the sum of the two does not change until the foot touches the

ground again.
When the foot comes in contact with the ground, the total mechanical energy of the centre of mass Etot = Ekf+ E + Ek, decreases abruptly. Since the ground is rigid this means that a deformation of some body structures takes place (lowering of the centre of mass) and that in this deformation mechanical energy is dissipated as heat or stored in stretched elastic elements. In this phase the muscles are contracted to check the movement and, being forcibly stretched, perform negative work. Immediately after this, the muscles shorten actively and restore Etot to its original level, performing positive work. The tracings of Fig. 5 show that the rate at which the muscles take up mechanical energy during negative work (negative slope of Etot Wj) and release it during positive work (positive slope of Etot W+) increases markedly with the running speed: W- = 4400 kgm/min (0.98 h.p.) and W+ 4000 kgmfmin (0. 88 h.p.) at low speeds (8.9 kgmfhr), whereas W-= 18500 kg/mmn (4.11 h.p.) and W+-=15600 kgm/min (3.47 h.p.) at high speeds (31.5 km/hr) (cf. Cavagna et al. 1971). In addition it can be seen that the potential energy change during contact, i.e. the deformation of the body due to the ground reaction, decreases with
= =

due to forward velocity changes and Wtmte oa exenlpwr In walking WM,. < I WI +I WI, whereas in running W1, W JI + I,1~. The continuous line was traced by hand through the points for subject J. M. (59 kg, 1-72 m, 24 yr: walked 100 km in 18 hr). The interrupted lines through the walking data were constructed according to the model of Fig. 6 (see text). The lines through the data of JI.1tIm in running were traced by the least squares method (the interrupted line refers to all subjects, the dotted line refers only to the six subjects of Fig. 7). The line through the running data of Wi/m was plotted according to eqn.(4) and that through the running data of Wi/m is the difference between the dotted lines HWrn and Wf/m. The symbols refer to different subjects as follows:

Fig. 2. Positive work per minute and per kilogram of body weight done during level walking (open symbols) and running filledd symbols) as a function of speed. WIm is the power spent against gravity, Wi/m is the power

0; P. C. m; H. T. A. The circled (1930).

crosses refer to Fenn's measurements

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646 G. A. CA VAGNA, H. THYS AND A. ZAMBONI speed. Both these findings suggest a quicker and more rigid 'bounce' of the body as the running speed increases. Figs. 2 and 3 show that, for a given speed of locomotion, the work done against gravity, W, is greater in running than in walking, whereas Wf is slightly greater in walking than in running. Wext is more than two times

E
.X

t4

.O

410

._V
C
L
._

?
&I

E :6 X C
V 0.5 X .-

0.

_ouw 3!5

cs

15 10 25 20 Average speed forwards, Vf (km/hr)

30

Fig. 3. Positive work per kilogram of body weight and per unit distance during walking (open symbols) and running (filled symbols) as a function of speed. The work per unit distance was calculated by dividing the work per minute (Fig. 2) by the average speed 14. The interrupted line gives the net energy expenditure per unit distance (right hand ordinate). Other indications as in Fig. 2.

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647 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING greater in running mainly because the recovery of mechanical energy is high in walking and practically nil in running (Fig. 4).
1.0 2

,J ._
05
.

E
.

,WE U

8
x I-

owL

E. C

V_

3~
I.-,

.t

N-0

0 U El

*+S L,. no~~~~0t; , S I.;' I*i9 15

10 20 25 Average speed forwards, Vf (km/hr)

30

35

Fig. 4. 'Recovery' of mechanical energy in walking (open symbols) and running (filled symbols) as a function of speed. The % recovery indicates the extent of mechanical energy re-utilization through the shift between potential and kinetic energy (elastic energy is not taken into account). The interrupted line gives the energy expenditure per unit distance (right-hand ordinate).

tVext increases linearly with the speed, F4. The constants of the interrupted line in Fig. 2 were calculated, using all the data obtained, by the least squares method. The equation is:

Wextfm (cal.kg-'. min-) = 9-420 + 4-728Vf (km/hr), r = 0-97.

The dotted lines in Figs. 2 and 3 were calculated as described below using the data obtained for the six subjects of Fig. 7.

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648

6.

A. CA VAGNA, H. THYS AND A. ZAMBONI

E

J.M.

kf

5 5 km/hr

11-9 km/hr

18-8 km/hr 28-5 km/hr

T+Ekv

cal S0
I

tat

Ek

P.C.
bO

89 km/hr

148 km/hr

21-2 km/hr

25-8 km/hr 315 km/hr

EU
U

VVX/ \

<NJ

Time -1 sec-4

Fig. 5. Experimental records of the mechanical energy changes of the centre of mass of the body while running at different speeds. The upper curves refer to subject J. M., the lower ones to subject P. C. It can be seen that in running the kinetic energy En increases and decreases practically in phase with the potential energy E.; the opposite is true in walking (see Fig. 1). Other indications as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 6. The forward speed change of the centre of mass taking place during each step of walking, AV,; the step length, L, the forward displacement of the body when only one foot is on the ground, L., and when both feet are on the ground, Ldc, are given as functions of the average walking speed, V,. The arcs below represent the trajectory of the hip joint when the body rotates over the supporting foot during the period of single contact. From 2 to 7 km/hr the step length is increased through an increase of the angle 0, i.e. of the distance L.E, whereas LdC remains constant. An increase of the amplitude of rotation leads to a greater vertical excursion of the trunk Srt and to a greater forward speed change. Above 7 km/hr the mechanism of walking changes abruptly (see text). Subject P. M. is an exception.

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MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING

649

0;\ s

0I!

0~~~N

V0\\fi

bo~~~I
E I\H, I<\?: X 1-- i c wv 5 s

00V

'
co

co- -'-N ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 ~~~~~~~ 0~~i

11
,,.
m
6
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0W)

UN
0

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650 6. A. CA VAGNA, H. THIYS AND A. ZAMBONI

DISCUSSION

Walking as a pendulum The difference in phase of potential and kinetic energy in walking (Fig. 1) suggests that the mechanism of walking is similar to that of a 'rolling egg' or a pendulum (Cavagna et al. 1963; Cavagna & Margaria, 1966; Elftman, 1966; Ralston & Lukin, 1969). The present data allow us to test the validity of this model. The step length and the forward velocity change of the centre of mass at each step are plotted as a function of speed in Fig. 6. The forward displacement of the centre of gravity during one step is obviously equal to the step length L and it can be considered the sum of the forward displacements during the time of double and of a single contact: L=Ldc+ Lsc. Both LdC and LS,, determined as described in Methods, are given in Fig. 6. It can be seen that up to the critical speed of 7 km/hr the forward displacement during the phase of double contact Ldc remains constant so that the step length increases only as a result of the increase in the forward displacement L8,; this takes place when one foot only is in contact with the ground and the body rotates over it as an inverted pendulum: the amplitude of this rotation increases with speed (Fig. 6). Assuming the knee joint fully extended, the vertical displacement of the trunk (hip joint) during the period of single contact is given by: Svt=l- cos (0/2), where 1 is the length of the leg and 0 the amplitude of the rotation (Fig. 6). In walking the maximum value of 0 is sufficiently small to assume the chord equal to the arc; the angle 20 can then be expressed as LSC/(21) radians and the equation above re-written as (2) Svt= 1 [1 - cos (QL,,/l)]. The values for Svt, calculated from eqn. (2) assuming 1= 1 m and the L,, values given in Fig. 6 (J. M.), are in good agreement with the vertical swing of the trunk measured by Cotes & Meade (1960). The calculated values of Svt were multiplied by the step frequency (of subject J. M. who has I 1 m) to obtain the work against gravity per unit of body weight and of time Wvtlm (interrupted line in Fig. 2). Since in a pendulum Wv = Wf, the same relationship must hold also for the power due to the forward speed changes of the trunk, Wft/m. It appears that both the calculated values (Wvt and Wft) and the experimental data (Wv and Or) increase with speed up to 7 km/hr: at this speed, however, the theoretical
-

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651 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING trend diverges from that of the experimental data, indicating that the pendulum model is no longer tenable. Ift and particularly Hv differ from the experimental data even over the speed

range (2-7 kmlhr) where the pendulum model can possibly be applied. Probably this is mainly due to the fact that Wft and WI, refer to the movements of the trunk and not of the centre of gravity as do W1 and *4. During walking the centre of gravity of the whole body moves within the trunk because of the movements of the limbs relative to the trunk. The centre of gravity is lifted within the trunk when (1) the angle between the lower limbs is increased and the trunk is lowered, and (2) the knee is bent during the forward translation of the leg, and the trunk is at its highest. Factor (1) tends to make W1 < Wvt whereas factor (2) tends to make W, > W1t. At high speeds, when the angle between the lower limbs is large because the step length is large, factor (1) prevails over factor (2) and WT < WJI. At low speeds factor (2) prevails over factor (1) (M. Kaneko, unpublished). Usually at about 4 km/hr the two factors compensate and 1, = Wt (Fig. 2).

At intermediate speeds: (1) The theoretical line overlaps with the experimental data of WV, (Fig. 2). (2) Wv = Wf as in a pendulum. At low speeds Wv is larger than in the model and exceeds Wr; the opposite holds at high speeds. (3) The recovery of mechanical energy (eqn. 1) reaches a maximum

(4) The external work done per unit distance is at a minimum (Fig. 3). These findings indicate that the similarity with the pendulum model is maximal at intermediate speeds. The energy expenditure is not only due to the external work, but also to the internal work. However, it is suggestive that the energy expenditure per unit distance is minimal when the external work per unit distance is also minimal.
It is interesting to investigate why the % recovery decreases at low and high walking speeds. At the lowest speeds Wv can be up to 2-5 times greater than v4 (J. M. at 2 km/hr) so that, even assuming the Ep and Ek, curves to be symmetrical and in perfect opposition of phase, the recovery would decrease from 100 % (when W,=W1) to [(255+1-1.5)/3.5]x100=57%. Since the actual maximum recovery when s, = EI is 65%, the recovery when s, = j2 5 will be 65x 57/100=37% (assuming that the shape of the E. and Ek curves and their phase shift remain the same). The minimal value measured at the lowest speed is very similar, i.e. 33 %. One can therefore conclude that most of the decrease in the recovery below 4-5 km/hr is due to the relative increase of W, over WI and not to a phase shift of the Ep and Ekf curves. At the highest speeds Wr can be up to 5 times greater than W, and this will decrease the recovery from 65 to 21 %: this figure is much greater than the actual values, 1-2 %, measured at the highest speeds (Fig. 4). The discrepancy between W, and vf is therefore not enough to account for the observed decrease of the % recovery at the highest speeds: a phase shift must also take place. In fact from Fig. 1 one can see that at the highest speeds of walking the curves Ep and EM tend to become in phase: walking changes to running. At walking speeds greater than about 7 km/hr both the work against gravity

(Fig. 4).

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652

G. A. CA VAGNA, H. THIYS AND A. ZAMBONI

(Figs. 2, 3) and the forward speed change of the centre of mass aJV (Fig. 6) decrease instead of continuing to increase as expected according to the 'rolling egg' hypothesis. Just at the same speed also the length of double contact, Ldc, which was constant, begins to decrease (Fig. 6). These results give support to the hypothesis, put forward in a previous paper (Cavagna & Margaria, 1966), that at high speed of walking the push of the foot that is about to leave the ground interferes with the pendulum mechanism. This push begins before the front foot contacts the ground, when the body is falling forward and the centre of gravity is approaching its lowest point. In this phase of the step an input of mechanical energy due to the push is evident also at low and average speeds of walking (Fig. 1): in fact Ekf increases more than expected from the decrease of (Ep+ Ek,) with the consequence that Ett increases (increment a in Fig. 1). This shows that external positive work is being performed by the muscles to push the body forwards thus keeping the 'egg rolling'. The reduction of LdC at speeds greater than 7 km/hr indicates that this forward push involves a progressively greater extension of the back foot: as a consequence less and less of its sole is in contact with the ground when the heel of the front foot hits the floor and LdC consequently decreases. The vertical lift due to this extension opposes the lowering of the centre of gravity with the consequence that the total vertical excursion and hence W, are reduced. In addition the forward component of the push may interfere with the action of gravity, which in this phase decelerates the body forward, with the consequence that a1 is also reduced.

Step frequency and work against gravity in running Step frequency is the reciprocal of the duration of one step, r, and this, in running, is given by the sum of the time spent in contact with the ground, tc, and the time spent in the air, tv. These were measured from the experimental records and plotted as a function of speed in Fig. 7 for six representative subjects. It appears that t, decreases over the entire speed range whereas tv at first increases and then remains about constant. The increase in step frequency with the speed of running is therefore due to a decrease in the time spent in contact with the ground, not to a decrease of the time spent in the air. Why does tc decrease with speed in running? The forward displacement of the centre of gravity when the foot is in contact with the ground is Lc= V.tc, (3) from which it appears that tc could be maintained constant by increasing Lc in proportion to the speed V,. This is not the case for man running. The interrupted lines in Fig. 7 are hyperbolas constructed according to eqn. (3) assuming Lc constant and equal to the indicated length (1-1.25 m). At low speeds the experimental points are below the curve and converge toward it indicating that Lc increases (from a minimum of about 07-08 m) but above a given speed, for many subjects, the points fall on the curve indicating that Lc is maintained constant. Because Lc does not increase in proportion to the speed but rather reaches a plateau (probably due to anatomical limitations), it causes a
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6 653 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING marked reduction of the time of contact; from the lowest to the highest speed t, decreases about 3-5 times. During t, the muscles must perform first negative and then positive external work (Fig. 5). The marked reduction of t, with 14 (down to about 0.1 sec) suggests that the contractile component of muscles plays a progressively less important role, as V, increases, in contrast to their elastic component (cf. with Cavagna et al. 1971). In other words, during the time of contact the body 'bounces' on the lower limb. A decrease in tc requires a quicker bounce, i.e. a stiffer spring (more contracting fibres in the leg muscles). This decreases the downward displacement during the time of contact and therefore the work done against gravity at each step (Fig. 5), but it increases the step frequency so that the work done per unit time does not change so much

(Fig. 2).
The problem of running: work against gravity or work to sustain the forward speed changes? The mechanical power output due to the forward speed changes (Fig. 2) depends on t, and L, (Fig. 7) and increases with speed according to the equation:
_= In

k'1((tVILc Vf I + -L)V

(4)

derived as described in the Appendix. It appears that in order to decrease Wf the ratio tv/Lc must be increased: this can be done by increasing the vertical component of the push and hence the time spent in the air, tv. As a consequence the forward displacement when in the air LV = tv. 14 would increase and, for a given step length L = Lv + Lc, the length of contact would decrease. A greater vertical push however would lead to more work being done against gravity in unit time, Wv. Possibly the direction of the push is such as to minimize the total power, Wext = Wr + lav.
The authors wish to thank Mr Norman C. Heglund for revision and stimulating discussion during the completion of this paper.

APPENDIX

Suppose one bounces an elastic body on the moving belt of a treadmill: it is then evident that the body will receive a larger horizontal push the faster the speed of the belt. In order to maintain the body bouncing in place one must give a push directed not only vertically but also horizontally against the direction of motion of the belt. According to this concept, the average forward deceleration -af, experienced by the centre of mass
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654
0-4

G. A. CA VAGNA, H. THYS AND A. ZAMBONI

I

\=1 ~~~~~~~~J.M.~ C~~~~~PC .C

L
M

0-3
*

0~~~~~~~~~0

0-2
0
0

0.1

00

t0
0

00

I0

I-t
F. B.

L, =1 25 m
g
'a

P.M.

*,'Lc =1l03 m
03
U

F
I%*

0%

0-2

o.i k
0

oo%%

%Lc =1-12 m
I 0

M.S.

i--

.Lc =1*08 m
00

U.M.

0-3k
0-2 k

%I
0

11

%
"

x%
0

!I o%

%,

'Id'...,
&O-1
11 00

.,P,
0

I
0 000

000 0
0
0 0

0.1
2

0 0

00

00

rn/sec
4

6
20

8
II
30

10
0

2
10

0
0

L- fI
20

III1
30

10

10

40

Average speed Fig.

forwards, Vf (km/hr)

ground t0, filledd symbols) and t,. (open symbols), during running as a The interrupted lines were constructed assuming that function of the forward displacement when the body is in contact with the ground, L,= t,-Vf, is independent of speed and equal to the indicated value.
7. Time in which the foot contacts the

in which the

body speed.

is off the

gound

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655 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING of the body at each step (i.e. the push of the ground against the body expresed per unit of body mass) was plotted as a function of the running speed, V4. The deceleration of the centre of mass during running was

measured from the experimental records (e.g. Fig. 1 in Cavagna, 1975) as follows: -/vi (5) V
tdec

where - AVf is the decrease in the V1 tracing and tdec is the time in which this decrease takes place. In order to determine - af we used only the tracings in which the difference between the increments and the decrements in 14 was not greater than 5% of 1IA41. This precaution was necessary because the forward speed change is markedly affected by the posture of the body during the run: the increments in 14 are obviously greater when one is accelerating, whereas the decrements are greater when one is decelerating. The chosen data refer to a condition in which the average forward speed was practically the same in successive steps. - df increases linearly with the running speed 14: -ar=A +k1. (6) The values of the constants A and k were determined by the least squares method. When - af is given in m/sec2 and V1 in m/sec, the average value of A for the six subjects of Fig. 7 is 0009 + 0267 m/sec2 whereas k = 0536 + 0049 sec' and r = 0-962 + 0 016 (mean and S.D. of observation, n = 6). This means that, on the average, the y-intercept is zero: i.e., as expected, the momentum lost by the body is zero when 4= 0. The coefficient k indicates the increase in the deceleration of the body at each step for an increase of the speed of running and depends on the nature of the link between body and ground during the deceleration; k is greater (1) the more rigid are the body structures connecting the centre of mass with the point of contact on the ground, and (2) the smaller is the angle between the direction of the velocity of the centre of mass and the line connecting the centre of mass with the ground. The experimental finding that -a, is linearly related to the forward speed 1f indicates that the net effect of these two factorE does not change appreciably with the running speed. The deceleration time, tdec in eqn. (5), is a fraction of the time of contact, which in general decreases slightly with increasing speed from about 0-48 at 10 km/hr to 042 at 30 km/hr. It is not surprising that the muscles need a progressively greater time for the positive work phase (push) than for the negative work phase (deceleration). In fact, according to their force-velocity
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G. A. CA VAGNA, H. THYS AND A. ZAMBONI 656 relation, the muscles are able to develop a greater force when stretched than when shortening; the difference is greater the greater is the velocity of the stretch-shortening movement. Taking for simplicity the average of all the data measured in the six subjects of Fig. 7, i.e. tdec/tc = 0-469 + 0 03 (mean and S.D. of observation, n = 78) and A = 0, eqn. (6) can be re-written as - A Vf=0 47k.lf.tc=k'.Vt.tc (7) and, from eqns. (7) and (3),

k'L. -A 4=L (8) From eqn. (8) - A1 appears to be independent of the speed because, with increasing speed, the push exerted by the ground against the body increases, but this is compensated by the fact that it acts for a shorter
time. The relationship between the increment of speed, AV and the positive work done at each step to sustain the kinetic energy changes, W., can be derived as follows: (9) Wf = JM(V2 V2mn) = JM[(Vf + AV)2- (4- AV )2], where Vfmx and Vfmn are the maximal and the minimal forward speed attained at each step, whereas A V = Vfmx -14 and A V =1f- Vfmn. During a stride the instantaneous speed, 14, remains for a longer time above than below the average speed, 14, s0 AVf' is less than A1f'. However, assuming for simplicity iV (10) A' AVf A Vt

and substituting in eqn. (9) one obtains Wr= m.A V (1A1 ) The positive work done during each step, Wf must be equal to the negative work, - Wf, because A1 equals - A1 when the average speed is kept constant. Thus from eqns. (8) and (11) Wr=k'mLc 14. (12) The work done in unit time, expressed per unit of body mass (Fig. 2), will be: = k' k'Lc Vft + t (13) T f=

WfkLcV Mf

and, since tc= Lc/14, eqn. (4) is obtained. The work expressed per unit of body mass and per unit of forward displacement (Fig. 3) is given by
mL

WO Wr7m __= *t~c= kt 1 + T

f

O _. Yt/LcMV

(14)

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657 MECHANICS OF WALKING AND RUNNING Le and tv are nearly constant at high speeds and both decrease at low speeds in such a way that the ratio tv/Le is practically independent of speed: the average value of all the data measured in the six subjects of Fig. 7 is 0-116+0-031 sec/m (mean and S.D. of observation, n=78). Considering tv/L, = constant, eqn. (14) will describe a hyperbola having an asymptote, for Vf -+ o, equal to k'Lc/tv: this would represent the maximum work done per unit distance to sustain the forward speed changes. The two approximations made in the above calculations (eqn. (10) and taking the deceleration time as a constant fraction of the time of contact) do not alter substantially the conclusions reached. In fact, eqns. (4) and (14) fit well the experimental data as indicated by the dotted lines in Figs. 2 and 3: these were traced taking 1c = 0-536 x 0 469 sec- and tv/LC = 0 116 sec/m. Expressing Wf/m incal . kg-'. min-', Wr/(m . L) in cal. kg-'. kmand 14 in km/hr, as in Figs. 2 and 3, eqns. (4) and (14) become Wflm= 0O278. 42/(1 + 0032 14) and Wf/(m.L) = 16-657 Vf/ (1 + 0-032 14). The relationship between Wext/m and 14 for the six subjects of Fig. 7 is given in Fig. 2 by the dotted straight line Wextim (cal.kg-'. min1) = 7.841 + 4.882 Vf (km/hr), r= 0-98. Assuming the % recovery in running (Fig. 4) to be negligible, the total external power can be taken as Wext = Wr + WvI; the power expended against gravity was then calculated as W, = Wext - Wf (dotted line). It appears that Wv is only roughly independent of speed; actually it attains a maximum at about 10-15 km/hr.
REFERENCES

CAVAGNA, G. A. (1975). Force platforms as ergometers. J. apple. Phyeiol. 39, 174-179. CAVAGNA, G. A., KOmAREK, L. & MAZZOLETNI, S. (1971). The mechanics of sprint running. J. Phyeiol. 217, 709-721. CAVAGNA, G. A. & MARGARIA, R. (1966). Mechanics of walking. J. apple. Phyeiol. 21, 271-278. CAVAGNA, G. A., SAIBENE, F. P. & MARGARUA, R. (1963). External work in walking. J. apple. Phy8iol. 18, 1-9. CAVAGNA, G. A., SAIBENE, F. P. & MARGARIA, R. (1964). Mechanical work in running. J. apple. Phyeiol. 19, 249-256. COTES, J. E. & MEADE, F. (1960). The energy expenditure and mechanical energy demand in walking. Ergonomics 3, 97-119. ELirMAN, H. (1966). Biomechanics of muscle with particular application to studies of gait. J. Bone Jt Surg. 48 A, 363-377. FENN, W. 0. (1930). Work against gravity and work due to velocity changes in running. Am. J. Phyeiol. 93, 433-462. MARGARUA, R. (1938). Sulla fisiologia e specialmente sul consumo energetic della marcia e della corsa a varie velocity ed inclinazioni del terreno. Atti Accad. naz. Lincei Memorie 7, 299-368. RALSTON, H. J. & LUKIN, L. (1969). Energy levels of human body segments during level walking. Ergonomics 12, 39-46.

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