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AN INNOVATIVE CONCEPT TO COMPENSATE INDUCED VOLTAGE DROP IN AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET WIND TURBINE GENERATOR

HASHEM HASSAN ABED

COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

2012

AN INNOVATIVE CONCEPT TO COMPENSATE INDUCED VOLTAGE DROP IN AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET WIND TURBINE GENERATOR

By HASHEM HASSAN ABED

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fullment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Electrical Engineering, COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES, Universiti Tenaga Nasional

MAY 2012

Abstract

Wind energy is a viable option to complement other types of pollution-free generation. A given wind turbine has a rated wind speed that is generally dened by its mechanical and electrical characteristics. Energy extraction for the wind turbine, designed for a rated speed and energy prole, is lower than rated value as the wind pattern continuously varies.

This dissertation discusses the development of an innovative concept for axial ux direct-drive permanent magnet variable speed power generator for wind power applications. The proposed concept is able to compensate induced voltage drop during low wind speeds by shifting the permanent magnet poles of the axial ux machine radially. An analytical model of the concept layout is developed, using mathematical modeling techniques in MATLAB, and the modeled equations are modied based on the new expressions derived from the variable radius AFPM design concept.

Results obtained from the analytical model of the new axial ux permanent magnet design concept shows that the stator coil induced voltage has less dependency on the angular speed of the wind turbine which reects better stability of the system in lower angular speeds. The model also suggests an increase in the overall annual power generation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As humans we should be thankful to our only creator, the Almighty God, who did create the entire creatures and from among them he bestowed knowledge, dignity and honor for the mankind. Then rst and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Engr. Dr. Vigna Kumaran for the continuous support for my master research, patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of my study and research.

Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank my co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Faris Tarlochan for giving me a great boost in my research tools through his vast knowledge in mathematical modeling and analysis.

My thanks to Mr. Syed Khaleel and Mr. Mohd Fairuz bin Hj. A. Gani for the latex lectures and support they have provided to help me writing my dissertation. I thank my fellow power systems lab-mates for the stimulating discussions, and for all the fun we have had in the last six months.

Also I thank all my friends in Universiti Tenaga Nasional. Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family and especially my parents, for supporting me throughout my life which I owe it to them along with all my achievements.

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis, submitted to Universiti Tenaga Nasional as partial fullment of the requirement for the degree of Master in Electrical Engineering, has not been submitted to any other university for any degree. I also certify that the work described herein is entirely my own, except for quotations and summaries sources of which have been duly acknowledge.

This thesis may be made available within the university library and may be photocopied or loaned to other libraries for the purpose of consultation.

July 13, 2012

HASHEM HASSAN ABED

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Contents

Page

ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT DECLARATION CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF SYMBOLES AND SUBSCRIPTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

i ii iii iv vii ix x xi

Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

INTRODUCTION Wind Energy Background History of Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Problem Statement Objectives Scientic Contribution of the Work Scope of Work and Methodology Summary of Chapters

1 1 2 6 6 7 7 8

Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3

FEATURES OF AXIAL FLUX PM MACHINES Introduction AFPM Classication Permanent Magnet Materials 2.3.1 Properties of Neodymium-iron-boron Permanent Magnets

10 10 11 12 13 15

2.4

Construction of AFPM

2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.5

Single Sided Machines Double-Sided Machines With Internal PM Disc Rotor

15 15

Double-Sided Machines With Internal Ring-Shaped Core Stator 16 Double Sided Salient Pole AFPM Torque Production in AFPM 17 19 20 22 24 24 26 27 28

AFPM Machines Without Stator Cores 2.5.1 2.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cor-less Stators Calculation of Core-less Winding Inductance

2.6

Induced Voltage Equations for Overlapping Stator Winding 2.6.1 2.6.2 Stator Element Induced Voltage Stator Coil Induced Voltage

2.7

Summary

Chapter 3 3.1 3.2

WIND TURBINES FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION 29 Introduction Power in the Wind 3.2.1 3.2.2 Kinetic Energy in a Parcel of Air Wind Power Extraction 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 Coefcient of Power of Wind Turbine System Wind Turbine Tip Speed Ratio 29 30 31 32 33 36 37 41 42

3.3 3.4 3.5

Wind Turbine Electrical Generator Types AFPM Machines and Wind Power Generation Summary

Chapter 4 4.1

ANALYTICAL MODEL Explaining the Concept of Variable Radius AFPM 4.1.1 Considering Each Coil As a Fictitious Electric Generator

43 45 46 48 51

4.2 4.3

Plotting the Torque Versus Poles Radius Choosing Suitable AFPM Machine Type

vi

4.3.1 4.4

Advantages of AFPM Machines with Slot less Windings

52 53 56 57 58 59 60

Modeling Stator Coil Induced Voltage 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 Creating an Expression for Coil Side Angle with Radius Creating an Expression for Radius Change with Shaft Speed Slicing Active Portion of Stator Coil

4.5 4.6

Finalizing the Analytical Model Summary

Chapter 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Induced Voltage for Range of Shaft Speeds with Fixed Radius Induced Voltage for Range of Radii with Fixed Shaft Speed Coil Side Angle Change with Slice Radius Max Induced Voltage versus Coil Side Angle Max. Induced Voltage versus Machine Outer Radius Shift Coil Voltage Versus Radius Shift in Different Shaft Speeds Coil Voltage versus rpm and Radius Shift Coil Voltage versus rpm and Radius Shift in Different Outer Radius Ranges

62 63 64 65 66 67 67 68

70 73

5.9

Summary

Chapter 6 WORK 6.1

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE 75 76

Recommendations for Future Work

BIBLIOGRAPHY

77

APPENDICES

85

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List of Figures

Figure No.

Page

1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Types of AFPM machine congurations Research methodology Basic topologies of AFPM machines Historical development of rare earth magnets Single sided disc type machines structure Double-sided machines with one slot-less stator cross section Double-sided Machines with One Slot-less Stator Internal View Double-sided machine with one internal slotted stator and buried PMs

4 8 12 13 16 17 18

19

2.7

Windings and PM polarities of a double-sided rotor with one internal slot-less stator 20

2.8

Double-sided AFPM Brush Less Machine with Internal Salientpole Stator and Twin External Rotor 21

2.9

Double-sided AFPM brush less machine with 3-phase, 9-coil external salient-pole stator and 8-pole internal rotor 22

2.10

Stator conductors and the interacting magnet ux density on the stator disk 23 23

2.11 2.12

Cartesian Halbach array Layout and dimensions of a normal three-phase overlapping aircored stator winding

25 26 32 33

2.13 3.1 3.2

Single-turn coil in sinusoidal eld Packet of air moving with speed u Power in the wind and power extraction

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3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

Wind speed versus power coefcient C p Typical wind-speed probability density curve Tip speed ratio versus power coefcient C p Wind turbine generating systems Methodology ow chart AFPM coils as a ctitious electric generators Fictitious generators at short radius Breaking torque versus active radius of the ctitious generator set Power versus wind speed Layout of normal overlapping stator winding Coil side angle change with radius Coil side angle tangent PM poles shift radius as rpm change Slicing active radius Induced coil voltage versus time at xed radius Coil side angle vs. slice radius Slice induced voltage factor (k) vs. slice radius Max induced coil voltage vs. shaft speed Induced voltage versus radius shift

34 36 37 39 44 48 49 50 51 54 55 56 57 59 64 65 66 67 68

Coil induced voltage versus outer radius shift at (200, 225, 250) rpm 69 Coil induced voltage versus shaft rpm and radius shift Coil voltage versus shaft rpm in different outer radius ranges Stator coil voltage versus shaft speed with average outer radius at (0.23) meter 72 73 74 70 71

5.10 5.11

Coil voltage for xed and variable radius setup with shaft speed Typical wind-speed probability density curve

ix

List of Tables

Table No.

Page

2.1 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3

Typical properties for Nd-Fe-B magnets Fictitious machine parameters Machine parameters Max induced voltage versus shaft speed at xed outer radius Max induced voltage versus radius in steps

15 49 63 63 64

LIST OF SYMBOLES AND SUBSCRIPTS

polegen rotor m la nM r polegen rrotoract rrotorav tw v pmav

Coil position Flux linkage (in weber turns) Electrical speed (in radians per second). Angular speed of the ctitious electric generator Angular velocity of AFPM rotor Coil pitch, Slot pitch angle The spatial period (wavelength) The number of PM pieces per wavelength The radius of the ctitious electric generator Active Radius of the AFPM rotor The average active radius of the AFPM rotor The thickness of the stator winding Average linear velocity of the permanent magnet poles with respect to the windings in the stator

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Sm-Co Nd-Fe-B HAWT VAWT PMSG AFPM VRAFPM

Samarium-Cobalt Permanent Magnet Neodymium-Iron-Boron Permanent Magnet Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Varialbe Radius Axial Flux Permanent Magnet

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Wind Energy Background

Every unit (kWh) of electricity produced by the wind displaces a unit of electricity which would otherwise have been produced by a power station burning fossil fuel. However, this is not the only benet of pollution free wind energy; about 1.6 billion people or a quarter of the worlds population lack the access to electricity and many of those people are in rural areas with no hope of connection to the electrical grid [1].

The availability of wind turbine generators can be a life saver for areas that have average wind speeds, where electricity can be produced. The main advantages of electricity generation from wind like any other renewable resource are the absence of harmful emissions and the innite availability of the prime mover that is converted into electricity.

Variable speed operation and direct drive generators have been the recent developments in wind turbine drive trains. Compared with constant speed operation, variable speed operation of wind turbines provides 1015% higher energy output, lower mechanical stress and less power uctuation. In order to fully realize the benets of variable speed wind power generation systems (WPGS), it is critical to develop advanced control methods to extract maximum power output of wind turbines at variable wind speeds [2].

1.2 History of Axial Flux Permanent Magnet

The history of electrical machines shows that the rst machine designed was realized in a form of the axial-ux machine. The rst primitive working prototype of an axial ux machine ever recorded was M. Faradays disc (1831). The disc type construction of electrical machines also appears in N. Teslas patents, e.g. U.S. patent No. 405 858 [P2] entitled Electromagnetic Motor and published in 1889.

Radial-ux machines were invented later and were patented rstly by Davenport in 1837 [3]. Since then, radial-ux machines have dominated the markets of the electrical machines. The rst attempts to enter the industrial motor market with radial-ux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM) in the 1980s was made by the former BBC, which produced line-start motors with SmCo-magnets.

With wind power rapidly becoming one of the most desirable alternative energy sources world-wide, wind turbine power system are becoming more and more a de facto element in any sustainable energy project where a low speed Axial Flux Permanent Magnet (AFPM) generator is usually driven by a wind turbine. AFPM generators offer the ultimate low cost solution as compared with solar panels [4].

Permanent magnet generator is like the synchronous or AC generator except that the rotor eld is produced by permanent magnets rather than current in a coil of wire. This means that no eld supply is needed, which simplify the construction and reduces costs. It also means that there is no I 2 R power losses in the excitation eld, which helps to increase the efciency.

One disadvantage is that the reactive power ow cannot be controlled if the PM generator is connected to the utility network. This is of little concern in an asynchronous mode [5].

The main idea in the early stage of the PMSMs was to increase the efciency of the traditional electric motors by permanent magnet excitation. However, the efciency increase was not enough for the customers and the attempts to enter the market failed and there were multiple reasons for abandoning the axial ux machine which may be summarized as follows:

Strong axial (normal) magnetic attraction force between the stator and rotor; Fabrication difculties, such as cutting slots in laminated cores and other methods of making slotted stator cores;

High costs involved in manufacturing the laminated stator cores; Difculties in assembling the machine and keeping the uniform air gap.

Despite this setback, several manufacturers introduced permanent-magnet machines successfully during the latest decade. Regardless of the success of radial-ux

permanent-magnet machines, axial-ux permanent magnet machines have also been under research interest particularly due to special-application limited geometrical considerations. A possibility to obtain a very neat axial length for the machine makes axial-ux machines very attractive applications in which the axial length of the machine is a limiting design parameter. Such applications are, for example, electrical vehicles wheel motors [6] and elevator motors [7]. Axial ux machines have usually been used in integrated high-torque applications. Possible congurations are:

Structure with one rotor and one stator, see Fig. 1.1 (a). Structure, in which the stator is located between the rotors, Fig. 1.1 (b). Structure, in which the rotor is located between the stators, Fig. 1.1 (c). Multistage structure including several rotors and stators Fig. 1.1 (d).

Figure 1.1 Types of AFPM machine congurations

The single-rotor single-stator structure, shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) is the simplest axial-ux permanent-magnet machine conguration [8] but this structure suffers, however, from an unbalanced axial force between the rotor and the stator.

This demands a more complex bearing arrangements and a thicker rotor disk to maintain a constant air gap, which is easily accomplished in structures in which axial forces are balanced like the double lateral rotors. Shown in Fig. 1.1 (b) is a TORUS type axial-ux machine, that has its phase coils wound around the slotted stator [9, 10] or non-slotted stator.

The rst TORUS type permanent-magnet machine, with non slotted stator, was introduced in the late 1980s [11]. The toroidally wound phase winding has short endwindings, which improves the machine efciency and power density.

As a drawback, the xing of the stator to the frame is more complex, and compared to the opposite structure in which the rotor is located between the stators, less space is left for the winding [12, 13].

More complex arrangements can be found by assembling several machines lined up on the same shaft and by forming a multistage axial-ux machine according to Fig1.1 (d). Such machines may be considered for ship propulsion drive use [14], Adjustable-Speed Pump Application [15] and high-speed permanent-magnet generator applications [16] and machine research purposes like unbalanced load sharing [17].

Permanent Magnet Axial Flux machines are increasingly adopted for many reasons; the decrease cost for low earth magnets, comprehensive research, versatile approaches and designs following the advances in AFPM newly created applications like electric vehicle, along with low rotation speeds generation, to name a few.

These machines propose many exceptional features. They are usually more efcient then their radial ux sibling because their eld excitation losses are eliminated resulting in considerable rotor loss reduction. Thus, the machine efciency is greatly improved and higher power density is achieved. Moreover, AFPM machines have small magnetic thickness which results in small magnetic dimensions. The wide availability and reducing cost of high-remanence, neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets have made axial-ux machines a cost-effective alternative for low-and medium-power motor and generator applications.

The very short axial length required to accommodate the magnetic and electric components can lead to designs that do not require separate bearings and the high moment of inertia of the rotor can serve a useful ywheel function. Particular examples of the use of axial-ux machines are for direct drive wind generators, compact enginegenerator sets, either for general applications [18] or in a hybrid electric vehicle, or as

in-wheel electric motors [19, 20].

1.3 Problem Statement

Wind energy is clean, abundant and a continuously growing power industry in the last two decades. A given wind-turbine has a rated wind speed that is generally dened by its mechanical and electrical characteristics.

Energy extraction for the wind turbine, designed for a rated speed and energy prole, is lower than rated value as the wind pattern continuously varies.

To maintain the energy extraction performance in such conditions, the electromechanical power system should continuously adapt and match the variable wind energy prole.

This dissertation focuses on increasing the stability of the stator coil induced voltage of the generator, through dynamically modifying its electro-mechanical characteristics. This is obtained by shifting rotor poles radius, to suit the variable angular speeds delivered from the wind turbine, thus maintaining the energy extraction performance.

1.4 Objectives

A given wind turbine power generator have a xed mechanical and electrical characteristics optimized to operate in a rated wind speed, and as the wind pattern continuously varies, the actual energy extracted over a period of time will be less than the rated.

The objective of the dissertation is to develop an analytical model of the stator coil voltage based on a new concept AFPM design to stabilize stator coil voltage in lower

and higher than the rated wind speed.

In the literature, several new and promising AFPM topologies are discussed. Axial ux surface magnet PM machines including slot-less and slotted topologies with different number of rotors and stators are also reviewed.

1.5 Scientic Contribution of the Work

The scientic contributions are:

1.

A review study for the latest research in low speed high efciency AFPM for the purpose of wind power electrical generation have been provided.

2.

This dissertation introduced an innovative concept of AFPM power generator that withstands lower wind speeds by utilizing a variable active stator radius design concept to maintain stable level of stator coil induced voltage at lower and higher speeds than the generator rated speed.

1.6 Scope of Work and Methodology

The scope of this dissertation covers the literature review of the advancement in AFPM and its increasing importance in low speed direct drive wind turbines.

The methodology used in this dissertation is summarized in the ow chart shown in Fig. 1.2.

The scope of work in this dissertation is conned to the analytical model of the stator coil induced voltage in distributed slot less and core less winding AFPM machine in relation with the variable shaft speed.

Figure 1.2 Research methodology

The parameters that are affected by the radius shift and have direct effect on the stator coil induced voltage of the machine are covered in general.

The analytical model is kept relatively simple, to provide a better understanding for the new concept, and the possibilities for future developments. Thereby, some simplications are included in the computation model; e.g. air gap ux leakage is neglected.

1.7 Summary of Chapters

The chapters of this dissertation are organized in the following manner:

Chapter 2 gives a description about the principles of types of AFPM and their structure topologies. The chapter also presents the latest research advancement in AFPM, particularly for power generation purposes.

Chapter 3 focuses on the wind power generation systems and the rule of AFPM in direct drive wind power generation.

Chapter 4 presents the new concept of variable radius AFPM and the analytical model to represent it.

Chapter 5 contains the analytical modeling results for the variable radius AFPM operating in a range of rotating speeds, and discusses the results obtained from MATLAB modeling.

Chapter 6 concludes the results and ndings, and gives recommendations for further research.

CHAPTER 2

FEATURES OF AXIAL FLUX PM MACHINES

2.1 Introduction

The history of electrical machines shows that the rst machines were realized in a form of the axial-ux machine. The rst one was invented by Faraday in 1821 and was practically a primitive permanent-magnet DC machine [21]. Radial-ux machines were invented later and were patented rstly by Davenport in 1837 [3]. Since then radial-ux machines have dominated excessively the markets of the electrical machines. The main idea in the early stage of the PMSMs was to increase the efciency of the traditional electric motors by permanent magnet excitation. Axial-ux permanent magnet machines have also been under research interest particularly due to specialapplication limited geometrical considerations. A possibility to obtain a very neat axial length for the machine makes axial-ux machines very attractive into applications in which the axial length of the machine is a limiting design parameter. Such applications are, for example, electrical vehicles wheel motors [6] and elevator motors [7]. Axial ux machines have usually been used in integrated high-torque applications.

In this chapter, the basic principles of the AFPM machine are explained. Classication of the AFPM is given and considerable attention is paid to the machine variant topologies and construction, as well as presenting the role of high performance permanent magnet materials in its development. The torque production and stator coil induced voltage equations are also presented in this literature.

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2.2 AFPM Classication

Axial ux machines may be classied [22] as follows:

Single-sided AFPM machines with slotted stator (Fig. 1.3a) with slot less stator with salient-pole stator

Double-sided AFPM machines * * * * * * with internal stator (Fig. 1.3b) with slotted stator with slot less stator with iron core stator with core less stator (Fig. 1.3d) without both rotor and stator cores with salient pole stator with internal rotor (Fig. 1.3c) with slotted stator with slot less stator with salient pole stator

multistage (multi-disc) AFPM machines

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Figure 2.1 Basic topologies of AFPM machines: (a) single-sided slotted machine, (b) double-sided slot less machines with internal stator and twin PM motor, (c) double-sided slotted stator and internal PM rotor, (d) double-sided core less motor with internal stator. 1-stator core, 2-stator winding, 3-rotor, 4-PM, 5-frame, 6-bearing, 7shaft [22]

2.3 Permanent Magnet Materials

The development of rare earth permanent magnet materials started in the 1960s with the Samarium-Cobalt alloys. The material properties of SmCo5 and Sm2Co17 make these permanent magnet materials very suitable to be used in electric motors and generators, but they are expensive due to the rare raw material Cobalt.

The newest, important addition to permanent magnet materials was made in 1983, when the high performance Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnet material was introduced which is comparing to Sm-Co permanent magnets offer compatible material properties but are much cheaper. A historical development of the rare earth permanent magnets is illustrated in Fig 2.2.

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Figure 2.2 Historical development of rare earth magnets [23]

With the development of the high performance Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet materials, a trend towards the use of permanent-magnet machines in large-scale industrial applications got started and is recently proven by Waltzer. As the design of a permanentmagnet machine is concerned, it is relevant to understand some properties of the permanent magnet materials discussed in detail by Campbell [23].

2.3.1 Properties of Neodymium-iron-boron Permanent Magnets

Recently, Nd-Fe-B magnet material with remanence a ux density Br of 1.52 T and a maximum energy product of 440 kJ/m3 was reported [24]. An Nd-Fe-B magnet material of this grade has become commercially available since the year 2004 and the values are close to the practical performance limit of sintered Nd-Fe-B magnets because the theoretical maximum energy product for Nd1 Fe14 B1 crystal is 510 kJ/m3.

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These high performance grades, however, suffer from a temperature dependency, as the maximum operating temperature is limited to about 100 degrees Celsius. This is related to the strong temperature dependence of the neodymium magnetic moment. As the temperature increases, there appears a rapid drop in the magnetization and an even faster decline in the intrinsic coercivity to zero at about 250 C.

The temperature tolerance of Nd-Fe-B magnets can be improved by replacing neodymium atoms partially with dysprosium and by replacing iron partially with cobalt, which improves the temperature behavior of the compound. However, dysprosium and cobalt have an anti-ferromagnetic coupling, thus the magnetization and the maximum energy product is reduced.

The best Nd-Fe-B grades, capable of tolerating temperatures up to 200 C, have remanence ux densities of about 1.2 T and have their maximum energy product of 300 kJ/m3 at a 20 C temperature.

Nd-Fe-B materials are conductors with a resistivity of about 1.5 m at a 20C temperature but with a rather poor thermal conductivity, about 9W /mK. For the surfacemounted structures this may be problematic because there appear eddy currents in the permanent magnet material due to spatial and current harmonics. Since the heat conductivity is fairly poor, an excessive temperature rise in the magnet material is possible. This, typically, does not concern buried magnets, since the effects caused by the harmonics are mainly focused on the rotor iron near the air-gap surface. Typical values for Nd-Fe-B as well as for plastic bonded Nd-Fe-B magnets are gathered in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Typical properties for Nd-Fe-B magnets [24]

2.4 Construction of AFPM

Axial ux machines are formed by one or more rotor discs carrying magnets that produce an axial ux and one or more stator discs containing the stator windings with one or more disk shaped air gaps. Many variations in this basic design are possible.

2.4.1 Single Sided Machines

The single-sided construction of an axial ux machine is simpler than the double-sided one, but the torque production capacity is lower. Fig. 2.3 shows typical constructions of single-sided AFPM brush-less machines with surface PM rotors and laminated stators wound from electromechanical steel strips. The single-sided motor according to Fig. 2.3a has a standard frame and shaft. It can be used in industrial, traction and servo electromechanical drives. The motor for hoist applications shown in Fig. 2.3b is integrated with a sheave and brake. It is used in gear-less elevators [22, 7].

2.4.2 Double-Sided Machines With Internal PM Disc Rotor

In the double-sided machine with internal PM disc rotor, the armature winding is located on two stator cores. The disc with PMs rotates between two stators. An eight-pole conguration is shown in Fig. 2.4. PMs are embedded or glued in a nonmagnetic rotor skeleton. The nonmagnetic air gap is large, i.e. the total air gap is equal to two mechanical clearances plus the thickness of a PM with its relative magnetic permeability

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Figure 2.3 Single sided disc type machines: (a) for industrial and traction electromechanical drives, (b) for hoist applications. 1 laminated stator, 2 PM, 3 rotor, 4 frame, 5 shaft, 6 sheave [22].

close to unity. A double-sided machine with parallel connected stators can operate even if one stator winding is broken. On the other hand, a series connection is preferred because it can provide equal but opposing axial attractive forces [22, 25].

2.4.3 Double-Sided Machines With Internal Ring-Shaped Core Stator

A double-sided machine with internal ring-shaped stator core has a poly-phase slot-less armature winding (toroidal type) wound on the surface of the stator ferromagnetic core [26, 27]. In this machine, the ring-shaped stator core is formed either from a continuous steel tape or sintered powders. The total air gap is equal to the thickness of the stator winding with insulation, mechanical clearance and the thickness of the PM in the axial direction. The double-sided rotor simply called twin rotor with PMs is located at two sides of the stator. The congurations with internal and external rotors are shown in Fig. 2.5. The three phase winding arrangement, magnet polarities and ux paths in the

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Figure 2.4 Double-sided machines with one slot-less stator cross section: (a) internal rotor, (b) external rotor. 1 stator core, 2 stator winding, 3 steel rotor, 4 PMs, 5 resin, 6 frame, 7 shaft [22]

magnetic circuit are shown in Fig. 2.7. The AFPM machines designed as shown in Fig. 2.5a can be used as a propulsion motor or combustion engine synchronous generator.

The machine with external rotor, as shown in Fig. 2.5b, has been designed for hoist applications.

A similar machine can be designed as electric car wheel propulsion motor. Additional magnets on cylindrical parts of the rotor are sometimes added or U-shaped magnets can be designed. Such magnets embrace the armature winding from three sides and only the internal portion of the winding does not produce any electromagnetic torque.

2.4.4 Double Sided Salient Pole AFPM

The double-sided salient-pole AFPM brush less machine shown in Fig. 2.8 have the stator coils with concentrated parameters wound on axially laminated poles. To obtain a three-phase self-starting motor, the number of the stator poles should be different from the number of the rotor poles, e.g. 12 stator poles and 8 rotor poles [26, 28]. Fig. 2.9

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Figure 2.5 Double-sided Machines with One Slot-less Stator Internal View: (a) internal rotor, (b) external rotor. 1 stator core, 2 stator winding, 3 steel rotor, 4 PMs, 5 resin, 6 frame, 7 shaft [22]

shows a double-sided AFPM machine with external salient pole stators and internal PM rotor. There are nine stator coils and eight rotor poles for a three-phase AFPM machine.

Depending on the application and operating environment, slot less stators may have ferromagnetic cores or be completely core less. Core less stator congurations eliminate any ferromagnetic material from the stator (armature) system, thus eliminating any eddy current and hysteresis core losses in it. This type of conguration also eliminates axial magnetic attraction forces between the stator and rotor at zero-current state. Slot less AFPM machines can also be classied according to their winding arrangements and coil shapes [29, 30, 31]

Toroidal.

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Figure 2.6 Double-sided machine with one internal slotted stator and buried PMs. 1 stator core with slots, 2 PM, 3 mild steel core (pole), 4 nonmagnetic rotor disc [22]

Trapezoidal. Rhomboidal forms.

2.4.5 Torque Production in AFPM

As in the case of radial-ux machines, the torque equation of AFPM machines can be derived through Lorentz force equations. Force and torque can be written for one conductor of length l, carrying a current i as:

F = l.( i B)

(2.1)

T = r F

(2.2)

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Figure 2.7 Three phase winding, PM polarities and magnetic ux paths of a double-sided disc machine with one internal slot-less stator. 1 winding, 2 PM, 3 stator yoke, 4 rotor yoke [22]

where r is the radius at which the torque is produced and B is the ux density. Using these basic formulas the sizing equation may be written in terms of the magnet ux and the stator ampere-conductor distribution.

In Fig. 2.10 the stator conductors on a radial cross-section (in x y plane) and the interacting magnet ux, which is in axial direction, are shown on a disk stator unit. Since equation 2.1 and 2.2 only valid for one conductor, so in order to determine the total amount of torque, rst the sinusoidal ampere-conductor distribution must be formalized.

2.5 AFPM Machines Without Stator Cores

Core less congurations eliminate any ferromagnetic material, i.e. steel lamination or SMC powders from the stator (armature), thus eliminating the associated eddy current and hysteresis core losses. Because of the absence of core losses, a core less stator AFPM machine can operate at higher efciency than conventional machines. On the other hand, owing to the increased nonmagnetic air gap, such a machine uses more PM material than an equivalent machine with a ferromagnetic stator core.

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Figure 2.8 Double-sided AFPM brush less machine with internal salient-pole stator and twin external rotor: (a) construction; (b) stator; (c) rotor. 1 PM, 2 rotor backing steel disc, 3 stator pole, 4 stator coil [29]

Stators of AFPM machines may have solid ferromagnetic cores or be completely core less, depending on the application and operating environment. A core less stator AFPM machine has an internal stator and twin external PM rotor (2.1.d). PMs can be glued to the rotor backing steel discs or nonmagnetic supporting structures. In the second case PMs are arranged in Halbach array Fig. 2.11. The key concept of Halbach array is that the magnetization vector of PMs should rotate as a function of distance along the array. Halbach array has the following advantages [33]:

The fundamental eld is stronger by a factor of 1.4 than in a conventional PM array, and thus the power efciency of the machine is doubled;

The array of PMs does not require any backing steel magnetic circuit and PMs can be bonded directly to a non-ferromagnetic supporting structure (aluminum or plastics).

The magnetic eld is more sinusoidal than that of a conventional PM array. Halbach array has very low back-side elds.

The peak value of the magnetic ux density at the active surface of Halbach array is:

22

Figure 2.9 Double-sided AFPM brush less machine with three-phase, 9-coil external salient-pole stator and 8-pole internal rotor. 1 PM, 2 stator backing ferromagnetic disc, 3 stator pole, 4 stator coil [29]

Bm0 = Br [1 exp( hM )]

sin(/nM ) /nM

(2.3)

where Br is the remanent magnetic ux density of the magnet ( = 2/la ), the spatial period (wavelength) la of the array and nM is the number of PM pieces per wavelength [33].

2.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cor-less Stators

The electromagnetic torque developed by a core less AFPM brush-less machine is produced by the open space current-carrying conductorPM interaction (Lorentz force theorem). Core less congurations eliminate any ferromagnetic material, i.e. steel lamination or SMC powders from the stator (armature), thus eliminating the associated eddy current and hysteresis core losses. Because of the absence of core losses, a core

23

Figure 2.10 Stator conductors and the interacting magnet ux density on the stator disk [32].

less stator AFPM machine can operate at higher efciency than conventional machines. On the other hand, owing to the increased nonmagnetic air gap, such a machine uses more PM material than an equivalent machine with a ferromagnetic stator core [34].

Figure 2.11 Cartesian Halbach array [35]

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2.5.2 Calculation of Core-less Winding Inductance

The synchronous inductance Ls consists of the armature reaction (mutual) inductance La and the leakage inductance L1 . For a machine with magnetic asymmetry, i.e. with a difference in reluctance in the d and q axes, the synchronous inductance in the d- and q-axis, Lsd and Lsq , are written as sums of the armature reaction inductance (mutual inductance), Lad and Laq , and leakage inductance L1 , i.e.

Lsd = Lad + L1

(2.4)

It is difcult to derive an accurate analytical expression for 1s for a core less electrical machine. The specic permeances 1s and 1e can roughly estimated from the following semi-analytical equation [34]:

1s 1e 0.3q1

(2.5)

The specic permeance for the differential leakage ux can be found in a similar way as for an induction machine. The thickness of the stator winding is tw and the distance from the stator disc surface to the PM active surface is g (mechanical clearance).

2.6 Induced Voltage Equations for Overlapping Stator Winding

The layout and dimensions of a three-phase overlapping air-cored stator winding are shown in Fig. 2.12.

25

Figure 2.12 Layout and dimensions of a normal three-phase overlapping air-cored stator winding [34]

Only one coil per pole pair per phase is used in these types of windings; there is, in this case, no need for a distributed winding as a coil side is already distributed over one-third of a pole pitch, and furthermore, the axial air-gap ux density in these machines is quite sinusoidal [22, 36]. Assuming the axial ux density in the air gap is sinusoidal, Fig. 2.13 shows a coil pitch of m = , and the coil at position with respect to the ux density wave, the ux linkage of a turn element of radial length dr at radius r can be determined by

+ +

2 B p sinr d dr p

(2.6)

26

where is ux linkage (in Weber turns) and r /2 < < +r /2 . Executing the integral of 2.6 with = t results in the following for the element ux linkage [37]:

4 B p rdr cos() cos(t) p

(2.7)

Figure 2.13 Single-turn coil in sinusoidal eld [37]

2.6.1 Stator Element Induced Voltage

The element voltage eelm = d /dt is then given by:

eelm =

4 B p rdr cos() sin(t) p

(2.8)

All the element voltages in equation 2.8 at different s are in phase as their magnetic axis are the same. From 2.8the layer voltage can be determined assuming a continuous layer with N conductors:

27

4 elayer = B p rdrNk p sin(t) p

(2.9)

with k p given by:

kp =

1 r

2
r 2

+r

sin( )d 2

2sin(r /2) r

(2.10)

2.6.2 Stator Coil Induced Voltage

The coil voltage can be determined from 2.9 in a simple way by dividing the active length of the winding in a number of slices u each with a length dr j = l/u at an average radius r j as [37]:

4 ecoil = B p N p

rj
j=1

l 2 sin(r j /2) sin(t) u r j

(2.11)

The analytical model in chapter 4 will use this equation in modeling the stator coil induced voltage.

28

2.7 Summary

This chapter presented the literature review of the latest research papers on AFPM, classication, structure and machine characteristics especially for power generation usage.

Also a detailed literature has been done on the peak induced voltage in the slot less overlapped stator coils dual rotor AFPM for the purpose of modeling later on in Chapter 4.

The ndings from literature review can be summarized in the following:

Axial ux machines can be implemented in low shaft speeds without gearbox coupling, which leads to the simplicity of machine structure, and therefore they are more suitable to wind power applications [38][39][40].

The latest developments in high performance permanent magnet materials have led to an increase in its energy density, and decrease its overall production cost but it suffers lower temperature tolerance. Plastic-bond Nd-Fe-B have higher resistivity, thus less eddy current losses which is the main cause of temperature raise [41, 42].

CHAPTER 3

WIND TURBINES FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

3.1 Introduction

Wind power is an important source of environmental-friendly energy and has become more important in recent years. The amount of installed wind power is increasing every year and many nations have made plans to make large investments in wind power in the near future. The wind power systems used as an alternative energy resource for electrical power generation plays a key role in rural electrication and industrialization programs.

There are many different types of wind turbines and they can be divided into two groups of turbines depending on the orientation of their axis of rotation:

Horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) Vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT)

Horizontal-axis wind turbine is the most dominant, although Vertical-axis wind turbine has better advantages [43] as it does not require a tail or a yaw mechanism to point it into the wind. This simplies the construction and thereby reduces the cost. There is no loss of performance due to misalignment of the turbine axis with the wind direction as there is with HAWT. For VAWT, the tower is not essential as it can be installed directly on the ground.

30

In this chapter, wind energy extraction process is discussed, along with all the parameters that affect the overall energy conversion, such as the tip speed ratio and the coefcient factor of the wind turbine system. Furthermore, the types of electrical generators used in wind power systems are presented. generators used for wind power generation is explained. The suitability of AFPM

3.2 Power in the Wind

The wind has been used to power sailing ships for many centuries. Many countries owed their prosperity to their skill in sailing. The new world was explored by wind powered ships. Indeed, wind was almost the only source of power for ships until Watt invented the steam engine in the 18th Century [44].

Wind turbines are aerodynamic machines where the linear motion of the wind is harnessed by the turbine blades and converted to rotational energy that used to induce ux density rate of change applied inside the AC generator which in turn induce voltage used to draw current to the desired loads in the form of electrical energy [45].

Most wind turbines designed for the production of electricity consist of two or three bladed propeller, rotating around a horizontal axis, or a simpler vertical axis wind turbine, which have lower efciency compared to the horizontal axis wind turbine. Furthermore, it is cheaper and has simple design. The generator parts are also located near the ground instead of being on top of the tower [46].

In practice, the wind turbine generator is not always generating electricity, as the wind speed naturally uctuates between high and low speeds. Due to structural and electrical limitations of both the turbine rotor and the generator connected to it, only part of that speed range is useful to produce electrical energy. For the rest of the speed range, the

31

system is either forced to stop rotating to protect it from over speeding or left rotating with no generation when the wind speed is low.

3.2.1 Kinetic Energy in a Parcel of Air

The kinetic energy in a parcel of air of mass m owing at speed u in the x direction is [47]:

1 1 U = mu2 = (Ax)u2 2 2

(3.1)

where A is cross-sectional area in meter2 , is air density in kg/meter3 , and x is thickness of the parcel in meter.

Looking at the parcel in Fig. 3.1, with side x moving by speed u and the opposite side xed at the origin, the kinetic energy increases uniformly with x, because the air mass is increasing uniformly.

The power in the wind, Pw, is the time derivative of the kinetic energy:

Pw =

dU dx 1 1 = Au2 = Au3 dt 2 dt 2

(3.2)

Equation 3.2 shows that the wind turbine power is proportional to the wind speed to the power of three. For example, if the wind speed decreases 1m/s from 5m/s to 4m/s this will cause the wind power to drop to almost half its value:

32

Figure 3.1 Packet of air moving with speed u [47]

53 43 = 48.8% Pw = 53

(3.3)

3.2.2 Wind Power Extraction

Generally, 1 kilowatt of power requires an 8 meter diameter turbine to extract from a 5 m/s or 18 kph wind speed. This assumes that the turbine is 30% efcient.

In most locations, wind speeds tend to be low and the design of wind power systems focuses on extracting the maximum wind energy at the prevailing wind speeds.

According to Betzs limit [48], 60% of the power can be extracted from the available wind energy, as shown in Figure 3.2. The power available in the wind is proportional to the third power of the wind speed, and as the square of the turbine diameter, as shown in equation 3.2. For small changes in wind speed, there is an enormous changes in the

33

Figure 3.2 Power in the wind and power extraction [47]

energy extracted.

3.2.2.1 Coefcient of Power of Wind Turbine System

The coefcient of power of a wind turbine represents the aerodynamics efciency of the wind turbine and it is a function of the tip speed ratio. It is also a measurement of how efciently the wind turbine converts the energy in the wind into electricity [50].

Figure 3.3 shows that the turbine power curve can be divided into three regions:

Region 1 when the wind speed is lower than cut-in wind speed, the turbine may rotate but with no power production.

Region 2 when the wind speed ranges between cut-in speed and rated speed, the system will generate power lower than the rated power.

Region 3 when wind speed ranges between rated speed and cut-off speed, the

34

Figure 3.3 Wind speed versus power coefcient C p [49]

wind turbine will generate the system rated power, and above cut-off speed there will be no generation and protection systems will be activated until wind speed drop below cut-off limit.

Cut-in wind speed is a characteristic design of the wind power system and it depends on:

Airfoil design and pitch angle of the blades. Gear box ratio. Electrical generator design.

Cut-out wind speed is dened mainly by the airfoil design and the material of the blades and hub, as higher speeds will cause structural fatigue, due to centrifugal forces exerted

35

on the structure of the wind turbine rotor.

The amount of power, P, that can be absorbed by a wind turbine, as shown in Fig. 3.3 can be found from [47]:

1 P = CP A 3 2

(3.4)

where CP is the power coefcient, is the density of air, A is the swept area of the turbine and is the wind speed.

The power coefcient C p is a value less than 1 and indicates the power available in the wind, and it represents the aerodynamics efciency of the wind turbine.

Total annual wind energy available for a specic location follows a probabilistic curve as shown in Fig. 3.4 , which can be obtained through a comprehensive data acquisition of wind speed for that location. The amount of electrical power produced by the wind turbine, follows a similar curve accept the part when the wind speed is not useful as it goes below the cut-in wind speed or above the cut-off speed for the particular wind turbine power system.

In order to study wind power in a particular site, the long term records of wind speed have to be statistically analyzed. The most widely used statistical distribution functions are:

The Weibull distribution which has been used to assess the potential of wind power in many countries [51, 52].

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The Rayleigh distribution which has been widely used to t the measured probability distribution functions in various locations [53].

Figure 3.4 Typical wind-speed probability density curve [54]

3.2.2.2 Wind Turbine Tip Speed Ratio

The power coefcient C p can be represented as a function of the tip speed ratio , which is dened as the ratio of the linear speed of the blade tip to the wind speed at hub height [55], and represented as:

(3.5)

where is the rotational frequency of the turbine, R is the turbine radius and is the wind speed at hub height.

37

Assessment of tip speed ratio is a key factor in wind turbine blade design, and it is recommended to be between 6 and 8. For example, a grid connected wind turbine with 3 blades, the optimum ratio is suggested as 7 [55].

Figure 3.5 Tip speed ratio versus power coefcient C p [49]

Maximum aerodynamic efciency is achieved at the optimum tip speed ratio opt , at which the power coefcient C p has its maximum value C p max . Since the rotor speed is then proportional to wind speed , the power increases with 3 and 3 , and the torque with 2 and 2 [56].

3.3 Wind Turbine Electrical Generator Types

Three different wind turbine generating systems are widely applied. The rst is the directly grid coupled squirrel cage induction generator used in constant speed wind

38

turbines.

Wind turbine rotor is coupled to the generator through a gearbox. In most turbines using this system, the power extracted from the wind is limited using the stall effect. This means that the rotor is designed in such a way that its aerodynamic efciency decreases in high wind speeds, thus preventing extraction of too much mechanical power from the wind. When the stall effect is used, no active control systems are necessary. Pitch controlled constant speed wind turbines have also been built.

The second system is the doubly fed or wound rotor induction generator, which allows variable speed operation. The rotor winding is fed using a back-to-back voltage source converter. Like in the rst system, the wind turbine rotor is coupled to the generator through a gearbox. In high wind speeds, the power extracted from the wind is limited by pitching the rotor blades.

The third system is a direct drive synchronous generator, also allowing variable speed operation. The synchronous generator coil has a wound rotor or be excited using permanent magnets. It is grid coupled through a back-to-back voltage source converter or a diode rectier and voltage source converter. The synchronous generator is a low speed multi-pole generator; therefore, no gearbox is needed.

Like in the second system, the power extracted from the wind is limited by pitching the rotor blades in high speeds. The three wind turbine generating systems are depicted in Fig. 3.6.

The direct drive generator have a wound rotor or a rotor with permanent magnets, while the stator windings is not coupled directly to the grid, but to a power electronics converter in order to decouple the wind turbine system from the grid [58].

39

Figure 3.6 Wind turbine generating systems [57]

The efciency and reliability of the direct coupled permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) is improved compared to the conventional wind power generation system [59].

Wind turbine systems with induction generator were popular [60, 61] more than any other wind turbine generator types. This has recently changed after the advancements in permanent magnet (PM) materials that caused greater availability and decreasing cost of high-energy permanent-magnet (PM) materials. Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB), in particular, has resulted in rapid permanent magnet generator development, especially

40

for wind energy conversion applications.

PM machine advantages [62] include:

Lightweight Small size Simple mechanical construction Easy maintenance Good reliability High efciency Absence of moving contacts PM generators can deliver power without undergoing the process of voltage buildup

No risk of excitation loss

Permanent magnet machines usually have higher efciency and are more compact than electrically excited machines. However, they are still considerably more expensive and require more advanced rectiers because they dont allow for reactive power or voltage control [63].

Compared with geared-drive wind generator systems, the main advantages of directdrive wind generator systems are higher overall efciency, reliability and availability. Although, the size of direct-drive generators is usually larger, it may not be a serious disadvantage for offshore wind energy [64].

AFPM machines fall into this type and it is the focus of this dissertation. The direct drive term indicates that it has no gearbox to adjust the shaft speed.

41

The output power is usually rectied and then inverted to match the utility grid frequency. A method for active output voltage regulation in an AFPM automotive alternator by means of mechanical ux weakening is proposed in [65].

3.4 AFPM Machines and Wind Power Generation

AFPM Machines are the primary generators for distributed generation systems. They are compact, highly efcient and reliable.

The advantages of PM machines over electrically excited machines can be summarized as follows [64]:

higher efciency and energy yield, no additional power supply for the magnet eld excitation, improvement in the thermal characteristics of the PM machine due to the absence of the eld losses,

higher reliability due to the absence of mechanical components such as slip rings, lighter and therefore higher power to weight ratio.

However, PM machines have some disadvantages, which can be summarized as follows:

high cost of PM material, difculties to handle in manufacture, demagnetization of PM at high temperature.

42

3.5 Summary

Wind speed is a natural phenomenon which cannot be controlled, and the wind turbine systems in general are limited by their capability to adapt to these natural phenomena. The power available in the wind is proportional to the third power of the wind speed, and to the square of the turbine diameter.

In this chapter, wind energy extraction process is discussed, along with all the parameters that affect the overall energy conversion, such as the tip speed ratio and the coefcient factor of the wind turbine system. Furthermore, the types of electrical generators used in wind power systems are presented. generators used for wind power generation is explained. The suitability of AFPM

CHAPTER 4

ANALYTICAL MODEL

In this chapter, an explanation of variable radius machine concept is presented, and simple ctitious generators analogy is used. The selection of AFPM layout topology, suitable for the modeling is presented.

The modeling of stator coil induced voltage, uses a less simplied analytical method, based on the coil induced voltage equation in section 2.11. A mathematical model is built and converted to MATLAB script to describe the induced voltage for the variable radius design concept, along the shaft speed curve. Different setups for the values of outer machine radius Rout , shaft speed and the outer radius range are applied.

According to the AFPM textbooks, even in newest models (Gieras2008), the analytical model of axial-ux PM machine is obtained by using the average radius of the machine. This approach is sufciently accurate to predict the machine performance if the magnetwidth-to-pole-pitch-ratio is xed. In other terms, the relative magnet width is constant with respect to the pole pitch, which is a function of the average stator radius. This is not the case in this new concept, as the relative magnet width varies along the motor radius. The waveform of the no-load air-gap ux density will change as well as the induced back-EMF. In designing the analytical model, this effect was taken into account.

After modeling the basic machine, it is important to emphasis the advantages of the new concept, by building an expression that inversely relates the shaft speed to the machine

44

Figure 4.1 Methodology ow chart

outer radius. The computed effect of the shifted radius is presented. The methodology used in this dissertation is shown in Fig.4.1.

Overlapped slot less stator winding type is chosen for modeling the variable radius AFPM for many reasons. An important radius-related parameter is the coil side angle, which decreases with the radius. This is explained in detail in this chapter.

Special MATLAB scripts are created to describe the following:

45

Slicing the active radius range into small parts to calculate the effect of slice position on the coil side angle.

Effect of the coil side angle on the coil induced voltage. Effect of shaft speed on coil induced voltage for a xed machine radius Creating an expression to inversely relate the machine radius to the shaft speed. Using the above expression to study the effect of both radius and shaft speed on coil induced voltage.

Study the effect of different ranges for the radius shift on the stator coil induced voltage curve with shaft speed.

4.1 Explaining the Concept of Variable Radius AFPM

The energy available in the wind is directly related to the wind speed. Thus, the power generated will suffer the same uctuations of the wind, and there will be times where the power system will operate at the boundary of its nominal ratings, or even stop generating for short or long periods of time.

Wind turbines are xed devices when it comes to size and power ratings, so as the generators connected to them, or this how it have been done so far. This limitation have a negative effect on the overall power extraction process, considering a uctuating power source like the wind.

The idea of the new concept design is to have a generator that can adapt its parameters to the variable power input. This adaptation is facilitated via a variable radius machine where the rotor magnet poles shifts within a range of machine outer radii, affecting the value of the stator coil induced voltage.

46

To achieve such functionality for the generator, giving it the ability to be continuously suitable to the variable power delivered from the wind turbine shaft to maintain higher overall power extraction in the process.

The direct effects of shifting the poles radius for the same angular speed will affect the following:

Ability to compensate the value of the stator coil induced voltage drop as the wind speed drop.

A machine with radius dependent electrical torque as the position where the electromagnetic force is exerted is variable.

4.1.1 Considering Each Coil As a Fictitious Electric Generator

Fictitious Generators (FG) analogy is used here to simplify the idea of the new concept of the Variable Radius AFPM (VRAFPM) machine. Assuming each stator coil as a small generator mechanically coupled to the rotor disk at the designated radius. The FG set have the ability to shift their coupling diameter in order to adapt to the variable speed delivered by the wind.

In AFPM machine, the permanent magnet poles are passing by the stator coils within air gap distance at average linear velocity described by:

v pmav = rotor rrotorav

(4.1)

where v pmav is the average linear velocity of the permanent magnet poles with respect to the windings in the stator, rotor is the AFPM rotor angular velocity and rrotorav is

47

the average active radius of the AFPM rotor.

Assume that each stator coil is a ctitious electric generator, that produces electrical energy from mechanical energy delivered from the rotor of the AFPM machine at the designated radius, as shown in Fig 4.2.

The ctitious generators have the same angular velocity related to the active radius as shown in the expression:

polegen = rotor

rrotoract r polegen

(4.2)

where polegen is angular speed of the ctitious generator, rotor is the angular velocity of the AFPM rotor, rrotoract is the active radius of the AFPM rotor and r polegen is the radius of the ctitious electric generator.

The three Fictitious generators are the load for the wind turbine, the source of mechanical energy to the shaft, and as those ctitious generators, adjust their rotating torque by shifting the active radius, the load will exert a controllable breaking torque on the shaft as shown in Fig 4.3.

The three ctitious generators, exerting the same amount of tangential breaking force on the disk rotor, considering that the angular torque of the rotor provided by the wind turbine equal to:

T = 3 F rrotoract

(4.3)

48

Figure 4.2 AFPM coils as a ctitious electric generators

where T is the torque, F is the breaking force exerted by the ctitious electric generators on the rotor disk and rrotoract is the active radius of the AFPM rotor disk. The load torque is linearly proportional to the active radius.

4.2 Plotting the Torque Versus Poles Radius

The breaking torque follows a linear relationship with the poles active radius, as they impose a breaking force on the rotor disk. Plotting the breaking torque versus the active radius of the FG set will result in a straight positive slope line as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Consider the ctitious machine shown in Table 4.1:

Consider a continuous breaking torque along the circumference of the active radius, and

49

Figure 4.3 Fictitious generators at short radius

Table 4.1 Fictitious machine parameters

using simple MATLAB script to plot the relationship between the breaking torque and the active radius of the ctitious generator set, results in a straight line as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Comparing this plot with the plot from section 3.3 for wind power versus wind speed shown in Fig. 4.5. The power curve follows a similar positive slope at region 2 versus wind speed. Knowing that power and torque are related by the angular speed:

50

Figure 4.4 Breaking torque versus active radius of the ctitious generator set

P = T

(4.4)

where P is the power, is the angular speed and T is the torque.

To manipulate the ctitious generators mechanical torque and speed, the machine radius is shifted inward or outward to match the desired speed/torque criteria to maintain generation.

From the ctitious generator perspective, shifting the active radius will cause the following:

Controlling the radius enable the control of the mechanical torque delivered to the FG set.

Controlling the radius will have direct effect on the angular speed delivered to the FG set.

51

The angular speed of the wind turbine can be in direct or inverse relationship with active radius depending on the control scheme, along with other wind turbine control factors like blade pitch control and Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

In this dissertation, only the inverse relationship between the angular speed and the active radius is studied, while the direct relationship will be out of the scope of this study.

Figure 4.5 Power versus wind speed [49]

4.3 Choosing Suitable AFPM Machine Type

Variable radius concept is suitable for Axial Flux Machine, as the disk-shaped structure of the air gap allows for radial shift of poles. The Radial Flux Machine (RFM) on the other hand, does not allow for such pole shift manipulation due to the cylindrical-shaped

52

air gap.

Below are the reasons for selecting the AFPM design:

1.

Low speed suitability, the axial ux permanent magnet machines are well suitable for low-speed applications, since their performance, efciency and power factor, does not depend on the rotation speed to the same extent as it is the case for induction machines.

2.

In integrated systems, like wind turbine power systems, an important demand is to select the most suitable electrical machine for a particular application. Traditionally, AFPM is chosen due to its simple structure durability, less maintenance and simple assembly. Furthermore, its disk shaped form factor along with the elimination of gearbox, enable its integration within the hub structure of the wind turbine.

3.

Due to the development of the permanent magnet materials, for some particular applications, using radial-ux machines seem to be no more the most adequate solution. If the machine axial length is limited by the application demands or if it appears to be possible to integrate the rotor directly into the driven machinery, the electrical machine based on the axial ux topology may be a competitive or even a better choice in such applications.

4.

The simple disk shaped structure, eases the adaptation of the shifted poles along the radius is mechanically feasible.

4.3.1 Advantages of AFPM Machines with Slot less Windings

For AFPM machines with slot less windings, the air gap is much larger and equal to the mechanical clearance plus the thickness of all non-magnetic materials (winding, insulation, potting and supporting structure) that is passed by the main magnetic ux.

53

Since there are no slots, the air gap will always be constant during rotation. Compared to a conventional slotted winding, the slot-less armature winding has the following advantages [66]:

Simple stator assembly. Elimination of cogging torque, which is a pulsating torque due to the interaction between the permanent magnets of the rotor and the stator slots of a PM machine.

Reduction of rotor surface losses, magnetic saturation and acoustic noise.

The disadvantages include:

More PM materials required for the bigger air gap. Lower winding inductance sometimes causing problems for inverter-fed motors and signicant eddy current losses in slot less conductors [22].

The stator with slot less overlapping windings layout of AFPM machines shown in Fig. 4.6, is chosen for the design of the variable radius AFPM.

4.4 Modeling Stator Coil Induced Voltage

Equation 4.5 describes the stator coil induced voltage:

ecoil =

4 B p N p

rj
j=1

l 2 sin (r j /2) sin (t) u r j

(4.5)

In this equation, the only parameters that are affected by the radius change are stator coil induced voltage and the coil side angle, where:

54

Figure 4.6 Layout of normal overlapping stator winding

The coil side width w is constant along the radius, representing the opposite side of the coil side angle as shown in Fig. 4.7, the radius of the slice is the adjacent of that angle.

The coil side angle r , measured from the axis of rotation decreases as the slice sweeping processes outward.

The induced voltage will increase as r decreases according to equation 4.5.

The active length of stator coil side is represented by the expression 4.6:

Rin = Rout l

(4.6)

55

Figure 4.7 Coil side angle change with radius

where Rout is the poles outer radius, Rin is the inner radius and l is the permanent magnet radial width.

As the value of coil side angle is changing along the active radius, the value of stator coil induced voltage for a specied small slice of the active coil radial length will be a function of the radial position of that slice.

The active radial length of the stator coil is the part that is covered by the magnetic pole, this length is xed in value but subject to radial position change as the poles shifted radially, as explained later in Fig. 4.9.

To calculate the coil induced voltage, a slicing procedure is adopted in MATLAB scripts to calculate the summation of induced voltages of coil slices along the active radius.

56

4.4.1 Creating an Expression for Coil Side Angle with Radius

In order to compute the induced voltage for each slice, and as the coil side angle changes for each slice, an expression is written for MATLAB script to calculate that angle for each slice, as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Figure 4.8 Coil side angle tangent

The MATLAB script in appendix A is written to calculate the coil side angle for each slice and follows these steps:

The value of the opposite of the angle is a constant dened by coil side width w. The value of the adjacent is the slice radius under process r j . Dividing the opposite by the adjacent gives the tangent of angle. Finally inverting the tangent to obtain the value of coil side angle for that particular slice.

The coil side angle is computed according to equation 4.7 :

Coil Side Angle (r j ) = tan1

coil side width (w) slice radius (r j )

(4.7)

57

4.4.2 Creating an Expression for Radius Change with Shaft Speed

To emphasize the advantages of the concept design, it is important to build an expression that relates the shaft speed to the machine radius. The goal of shifting radius Rout (n) with respect to rotational speed n is to compensate induced voltage drop as the angular speed decreases in effect to low wind speeds. Fig. 4.9 is showing that for same shaft angular speed, a larger radius conguration of the generator will produce higher induced voltage, compared to shorter radius conguration.

Figure 4.9 PM poles shift radius as rpm change

Thus, an expression that relates the angular speed to the active radius is formulated and will be included in most MATLAB scripts.

The expression that relates the value of outer radius Rout to the angular speed of the shaft n is shown in 4.9:

Rout (n) + Routmin nmax n

Routmax Routmin nmax nmin

(4.8)

58

Rout (n) = Routmin + (nmax n)

Routmax Routmin nmax nmin

(4.9)

when n = nmax , the shifted outer radius Rout (n) = Routmax when n = nmin , the shifted outer radius Rout (n) = Routmin

Where Routmin is the minimum outer radius

Routmax is the maximum outer radius

nmax is the maximum angular speed

nmin is the minimum angular speed

4.4.3 Slicing Active Portion of Stator Coil

Fig. 4.10 is showing the slicing method used to compute the stator coil induced voltage, where the active length of the stator coil l is sliced to a number of thin slices u, as shown in :

l = Rout Rin

(4.10)

The number of slices u is chosen based on the desired quality of the results, as more slices means more processing time and more accurate results for the total coil induced voltage .

Each slice have a radial length dr j equals:

59

Figure 4.10 Slicing active radius

dr j = l/u

(4.11)

where l is the length of active portion of the stator coil side which equals the radial length of the permanent magnet, u is number of slices chosen for the computation process.

4.5 Finalizing the Analytical Model

To compute the coil induced voltage in a range of machine radii, a method of slicing the active radius length is applied on equation 4.12:

4 ecoil = B p N p

rj
j=1

l 2 sin(r j /2) sin(t) u r j

(4.12)

This formula is modeled in MATLAB script in three parts, the rst is to compute the coil side angle:

r j = atan(w/r j ) where r j is changing along the radial length of the permanent magnet pole.

(4.13)

60

The second part is to compute the summation of the expression inside the square brackets (sk) in equation 4.12:

sk =

rj
j=1

l 2 sin(r j /2) u r j

(4.14)

The third part is to nd the induced voltage for a particular machine with outer radius Rout , which will be repeated for a range of outer radius.

4.6 Summary

In this chapter, the research methodology was presented, and the concept of the variable radius machine is explained by considering each stator as a ctitious electric generator. Choosing the suitable AFPM type to model the variable radius concept has been done. Furthermore, an expression for the stator coil side angle with machine outer radius was derived and converted to MATLAB script.

In order to compensate the induced voltage drop in lower wind speeds, a relationship between shaft speed and active machine radius was derived.

MATLAB scripts are used to calculate the effect of the variable radius on all the parameters affecting the stator coil induced voltage.

To obtain the curves that present the effect of variable radius on AFPM machine stator coil voltage, by sweeping the following parameters in their respective ranges:

shaft speed outer radius

61

both, shaft speed and outer radius outer radius range of movement

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, results from the analytical model of the variable radius AFPM machine is presented and analyzed. Stator coil voltage is plotted and analyzed in different modeling setups of radius and shaft speeds. The values computed both before and after implementing the variable radius concept design is presented.

All the parameters in equation 4.12, that was found to have effect on the stator coil induced voltage, were included in the analytical model.

Calculations were made at different operating conditions of rpm, radius and both rpm and radius, linked together by the expression 4.9, made specically for this model in Chapter 4.

The calculations are performed on the analytical model of one stator coil of a 6-pole, slot less, over-lapped windings and surface-mounted PM poles on double lateral rotors, shown in Table. 5.1.

63

Table 5.1 Machine parameters

5.1 Induced Voltage for Range of Shaft Speeds with Fixed Radius

Equation 4.5 describes the stator coil induced voltage for a xed radius machine as shown in Fig. 5.1. The induced voltage curve is computed by summation of voltages in all slices ranging from the inner radius Rin to the outer radius Rout of the machine, as described in Chapter 4. This approach is implemented in MATLAB script, listed in appendix A.

Each slice in the range has slightly different parameters compared to its two adjacent slices as their radius differs.

The voltage plot shown in Fig. 5.1 is obtained at shaft speed of 150 rpm, and the coil induced voltage values for different shaft speeds and xed outer radius is tabulated in Table 5.2. The induced voltage is linearly related to the shaft speed. Table 5.2 Max induced voltage versus shaft speed at xed outer radius

64

Figure 5.1 Induced coil voltage versus time at xed radius

5.2 Induced Voltage for Range of Radii with Fixed Shaft Speed

Table 5.3 shows the coil induced voltage versus rotor outer radius at xed shaft speed of 200 rpm. The active radius is shifted by steps from 0.13 to 0.17 meter to obtain preliminary results of its effect on the coil induced voltage. Table 5.3 Max induced voltage versus radius in steps

65

5.3 Coil Side Angle Change with Slice Radius

The coil side angle is affected by the radial position of the slice. It is computed using equation 5.1, mentioned earlier in the methodology:

Coil Side Angle (r j ) = tan1

coil side width (w) slice radius (r j )

(5.1)

The MATLAB script listed in appendix B is used for this plot as shown in Fig. 5.2. The coil side angle shows an inverse relation with slice radius, causing the slice induced voltage factor k to change as shown in Fig. 5.3. The MATLAB script for this plot is listed in appendix C.

Figure 5.2 Coil side angle vs. slice radius

66

Figure 5.3 Slice induced voltage factor (k) vs. slice radius

5.4 Max Induced Voltage versus Coil Side Angle

The stator coil voltage versus the shaft speed of the modeled machine plot is shown in Fig. 5.4. The MATLAB script for this plot is listed in appendix D.

The coil voltage swings from 7 to 20 volts as the speed ranges from 100 to 300 rpm, in other words, the coil voltage is in a direct linear relationship with the shaft angular speed.

The shaft speed is swept in this MATLAB script along the dened range, n_min and n_max, and voltage plot is obtained by repeating the coil voltage calculations used for each speed over that range, in a predened step size. Note that, the outer radius still xed at 0.15 meter for this plot, which will be altered in later section.

67

Figure 5.4 Max induced coil voltage vs. shaft speed

5.5 Max. Induced Voltage versus Machine Outer Radius Shift

As the poles radius shift position, the coil side angle changes and affects directly the coil induced voltage as the radius increase.

The coil induced voltage versus machine outer radius shift from 0.13 to 0.17 meter at 200 rpm shaft speed is plotted in Fig. 5.5 showing a linear effect of the outer radius on the induced voltage at the average angular speed.

The MATLAB scripts used in the calculation of coil voltage versus active radius shift is listed in appendix E.

5.6 Coil Voltage Versus Radius Shift in Different Shaft Speeds

Fig. 5.6 shows the stator coil induced voltage versus active radius shift at three different shaft speeds. The value of coil voltage was 15.15 volts at 200 rpm, almost equals the minimum value of the coil voltage at 250 rpm.

68

Figure 5.5 Induced voltage versus radius shift

The MATLAB script used to plot the Fig. 5.6 is listed in appendix F.

5.7 Coil Voltage versus rpm and Radius Shift

The objective of shifting the radius Rout (n) with respect to rotational speed n is to compensate induced voltage drop as the shaft speed decreases in lower wind speeds.

The expression relating the outer radius shift and shaft speed is shown in 5.2:

Rout (n) = Routmin + (nmax n)

Routmax Routmin nmax nmin

(5.2)

The MATLAB script used to plot the Fig. 5.7 is listed in appendix G.

The following ranges were applied:

69

Figure 5.6 Coil induced voltage versus outer radius shift at (200, 225, 250) rpm

Outer machine radius range (0.14 to 0.17) meter. Shaft speed range from 300 rpm to 100 rpm, which is inversely related to the outer radius value through the expression in equation 5.2 for each step of the calculation.

The active radius in this stage is shifted outward to compensate the coil voltage drop, and the slope of coil voltage curve was decreased compared to voltage curve slope shown in Fig. 5.4, where the active radius was xed.

The voltage compensation process through increasing the machine outer radius was effective but further adjustments to the active radius range need to be investigated, which will be done in the next section.

70

Figure 5.7 Coil induced voltage versus shaft rpm and radius shift

5.8 Coil Voltage versus rpm and Radius Shift in Different Outer Radius Ranges

The coil voltage plot for the 5 outer radius ranges is shown in Fig. 5.8 and was obtained using the same MATLAB script listed in appendix H. Repeated calculations for 5 ranges of active radius with an increment step of 0.04 meter for the same shaft speed, shows that wider ranges have higher voltage levels with a different response to angular speed changes.

At the active radius range of 0.2 meter, the coil voltage started at 16 volts at 100 rpm, maxed at 22 volts at 210 rpm and dropped to 17.5 volts at 300 rpm.

As the range of outer radius stepped up from 0.04 to 0.20 meter, the coil voltage curve become more balanced with shaft speed, with minimum voltage drop, compared to the voltage curve in Fig. 5.4, where the voltage have greater change along the speed range.

Note that the minimum limit of the outer radius range is xed at 0.13 meter, as it is irreducible, due to the physical limitation of the coil side thickness, in the stator inner

71

Figure 5.8 Coil voltage versus shaft rpm in different outer radius ranges

radius side.

The upper voltage curve in Fig. 5.8 is obtained when the outer radius range is set to 0.2 meter. The coil voltage swings from 16 volts at 100 rpm shaft speed, to 22 volts at 210 rpm then drop slightly to 17.5 volts at 300 rpm.

A comparison is necessary to assess the effects of the variable radius setup with a xed average radius machine result, which will show minimum change for the coil voltage with shaft speed compared to a xed average outer radius setup.

Fig. 5.9 shows the coil voltage versus shaft speed with a xed active radius at the average value:

Rav =

Ravmin + Ravmax 2

(5.3)

72

Rav =

0.13 + 0.33 2

= 0.23 meter

(5.4)

where Rav is the average active radius, Ravmin is the average active radius in the minimum radius range and Ravmax is the average active radius in the maximum radius range.

Figure 5.9 Stator coil voltage versus shaft speed with average outer radius at (0.23) meter

To compare the coil voltage in a xed radius with a variable radius setup, the two curves are drawn in one plot shown in Fig. 5.10.

The coil voltage in the variable radius setup curve is less dependent on the shaft speed, compared to the xed average radius setup, which is the expected outcome from implementing the variable radius setup.

Fig. 5.11 shows that lower wind speeds have higher probability than high wind speed. Thus, the variable radius setup will provide higher annual voltages comparing to the

73

Figure 5.10 Coil voltage for xed and variable radius setup with shaft speed

xed average radius setup, despite that the later has a higher maximum voltage, which only occur in less probable high wind speeds.

5.9 Summary

Results from the analytical model of the variable radius AFPM coil voltage in Chapter 4 have been presented, plotted and analyzed in different modeling setups of radius and shaft speeds.

The values which are computed both before and after implementing the variable radius parameter into the analytical model were presented and plotted.

As the rotor poles radius shift position, the coil side angle changes and directly affects the coil voltage. The objective of shifting the radius Rout (n) with respect with rotational speed n is to compensate induced voltage drop, as the shaft speed decreases in lower wind speeds. The effect of shifting the outer radius on the induced voltage, found to be

74

Figure 5.11 Typical wind-speed probability density curve [54]

a direct linear relation, at the average angular speed. Furthermore, the coil voltage is found to be in linear proportion with the shaft speed.

As the range of outer radius stepped up from 0.04 to 0.20 meter, the coil voltage curve become more balanced with shaft speed, with minimum effect of shaft speed on coil voltage.

Comparison of the coil voltage in a xed average radius setup with a variable radius setup, shows that using the variable radius setup have more independence from shaft speed compared to the xed average radius setup, which support the main objective of this dissertation.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE WORK

This dissertation discussed the development of an innovative concept for axial ux direct-drive permanent magnet variable speed power generator for wind power applications. The proposed innovate concept design was modeled and is shown to be able to compensate induced voltage drop during low wind speeds. The analytical model of the concept layout is developed using mathematical modeling techniques in MATLAB based on the new concept AFPM design.

The idea of the new concept design was to have a generator that can adapt its parameters to the variable power input. This adaptation was facilitated via a variable radius machine where the rotor magnet poles shifts within a range of machine outer radii, affecting the value of the stator coil induced voltage.

The new design concept benet from the disk-shaped air gap in AFPM to achieve the desired radial pole shifting process, which is impractical in the cylindrical air gap found in radial ux machines.

The analytical model of the coil induced voltage was created based on the slot less overlapping windings layout of AFPM machines. The modeling results shows that the new design concept was effective to mitigate the effects of wind speed uctuations on the coil induced voltage in high and low wind speeds by:

76

Compensating the induced voltage in lower wind speeds. Preventing the induced voltage from exceeding over voltage limit in high wind speeds.

Hence, the new concept AFPM design is found to have a stator coil induced voltage that is less dependent on the angular speed of the wind turbine which reects better stability of the system.

The new AFPM design concept has shown a promising result to maintain higher induced voltages in lower wind speeds which are more frequent according to the general probabilistic distribution of annual wind speeds. This suggests that implementing such design will result in an increase in the capacity factor of the power generation system.

6.1 Recommendations for Future Work

Future research should include further studies on the simulation of variable radius modeling of axial-ux machines with regards to torque and losses. In this study, modeling was performed to assess the effect of the design in terms of induced voltage at variable radius and angular speed for the wind turbine. In future, the results presented here can be validated by experimental results or by utilizing nite element method.

Investigating other types is also recommended to analyze the practical usage in other areas of AFPM application like electric vehicle or high speed micro-power generation. Furthermore, it is clear that the surface mounted axial-ux permanent-magnet machines are still open for more research, particularly leading into compensate the machines overall voltage drop. Hence, research introducing better designs for the pole shifting control along with new geometries of the stator windings is required.

77

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APPENDICES

86

A. Coil Voltage versus Time

rst s s ss s ssrtt r Prr P t r rss tr r s r tr rtr rs r rtr rs tr t t r rs r r s t P r st r trs r rss ss r s rs P

t s tr

r ttrr t s t rts r st t ss t t t P

87

t sst Ptt tst t ttst r ss t ts tt t t t

B. Coil Side Angle versus Radius

rst s s ss s ssrtt r tr Prr t t s t rs P

r s r tr rtr rs r rtr rs tr t t r rs r r s t

88

P r st r trs r rss ss r s rs

t s tr

r ttrr t rstt ss Ptt trt s tr r tt t s

C. Slice Induced Factor (k) Versus Slice Radius

rst s s ss s ssrtt r Prr tr rss s tr P

r s tr rtr rs

89

r rtr rs tr t t r rs r r s t P r st r trs r rss ss r s rs

t s tr

r ttrr t rstt ss Ptt t r r rs tr t tr tt t tr s s rs

D. Coil Voltage with Shaft Speed

rst s s ss s ssrtt r tr Prr t t

90

t rss r P

r s r tr rtr rs r rtr rs tr t t r rs r r s t P r st r trs r rss ss

t s r

r ttrr t t tr rstt ss t t t P r s rs tt t ss t

s Ptt t r

t r

91

t ts tt t rss r P

E. Coil Voltage with Machine Outer Radius Shift

rst s s ss s ssrtt r Prr t t t t tr rs st t r

tr r r r s rt tr ts rs rs st rtr tr rtr rs

rs tr rtr rs P r r r r rs r r s t P r st tr t t r rss ss

92

r trs

rt t rs tr t rs st strt t rs st s

st

strs rt t st r trr trrstrr r r trr rr s trr rr t rs s t tr t t r t tr t tr s t rs tr r st t st r t st t st r t s rs tr rts tr r ts t s t rst r t rst r t tr t r

t r r rs r rtr ttrr t s tr s t r rs

93

rstt ss t t t s

t r

s r r s rs t ss t

Ptt ttr r tr rs tr t ts tt t rss tr rs

st t r

F. Coil Voltage with Radius and three Shaft Speeds

rst s s ss s ssrtt r Prr t t t t tr rs st t r

tr r r r s

94

rt tr ts rs rs st rtr tr rtr rs

rs tr rtr rs P r r r r rs r r s t P r st r trs tr t t r rss ss

rt t tr t rs st strt t rs st s

st

strs rt t st r trr trrstrr r r trr rr r st t st r t st t st r t s rs tr rts tr r ts t s t rst r t rst r t tr t r s

t rs s

95

trr rr

t tr t t r t tr t tr s t rs tr

t rs rs rs r s t r rs

t s tr

rtr ttrr t rstt ss t t t t r s s r r s rs t ss t

t t t t r s t t t t r

96

s Ptt ttrtr tr r tr rs tr t ts tt t rss tr rs

st t r

G. Coil voltage versus both outer radius and shaft rpm

rst s s ss s ssrtt r Prr t rss t tr rs st r t tr rs st t r

tr r r r s rt tr ts r tr t t r rs s t P r st r trs

97

r rss ss tr rs tr rs r r st t tr rs

r rss tt r t tr rs r t ttrr t s t r r rtr rs t s rs

t t tr r st t ss r s rs t tt t s s

s t r t r

98

t s r t ts tr rs tt t rss st r rs st

H. Coil voltage versus shaft rpm in different outer radius ranges

rst s s ss s ssrtt r tr Prrt t t rss st r rt tr rs rs P

r s r r tr t t r rs s t P r st r trs r rss ss tr rs r r st t tr rs

r r r

99

r r t ttrr t s t r r rtr rs t s rs

t s t rts r st t ss r s rs t

s t r t s r

t ts tt t ts tr rs rs

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