Life ? ? ? ? ? ?

Living organisms are mostly similar to nonliving matters. Distinguished in growth (Metabolism, Division, Reproduction); and transition of energy

Energy is being transformed from one form to other

Metabolism
The sum total of all enzymatic reactions occurring in the cell

Highly coordinated, purposeful activity in which many set of reactions exchanging matter and energy between cells & its environment

Metabolism - Functions
1. To obtain energy from fuel molecules 2. To convert exogenous nutrients in to

building blocks
3. To assemble them in Macromolecules 4. Degrade them in specialized functions

Metabolism

Anabolism: Diverging
Constructive Processes, Viz. Photosynthesis Requirements: CO2 & H2O

Catabolism: Converging
Degradative Processes, Viz. Respiration Requirements: Food and Oxygen

Energy transformations
Chemical

Electrical

Kinetic

Energy transformations
Plants can harvest light energy animals cant

Animals consume plants and procure source of energy Plants: Endowed with great potential to prepare food (Photosynthesis)
Food can not work directly used to carry out routine life processes It requires Burning of Food (Respiration)

pHOTOSYNTHESIS
Requirements:
CO2
H2O Green Tissue - Chlorophyll

Light
Enzymes & Coenzymes

photosynthesis

photosynthesis
Photosynthesis converts light energy into the chemical energy of sugars. Light energy from light drives the reactions. Oxygen (O2) is a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere:

Overall reaction
CO2 + (

4(OH) + 4 H 2. 4 H + CO2 (CH2O) + H2O 3. 4 (OH) 2 H2O + O2

6 CO2 +

Reaction center
Green Leaves Chlorenchyma cells Chloroplast Granum Thylacoid Thylacoid Membrane Quantasome Antenna Complex (Pigments) Chlorophyll

Reaction center

Reaction center

Reaction center

pHOTOSYNTHESIS
Two Step Process (F. F. Blackman)
1. Light dependent reactions -- Photophosphorylation Cyclic photophosphorylation Noncyclic photophosphorylation

2. Light independent reactions -- Carbon fixation-Calvin cycle

Light Reaction

Dark Reaction

Light dependent reaction

Light

Pigments Chemical Reaction

Light

Quantity
Quality

Light
The distance between the crests of waves is called the wavelength. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy for each unit (photon) of electromagnetic energy.

Remember, energy cannot be created or destroyed. When light is absorbed by a green plant, a small portion of that energy is converted into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis.

Light

Schematic diagram of the action spectrum measurements by T. W. Engelmann. Engelmann projected a spectrum of light onto the spiral chloroplast of the filamentous green alga Spirogyra and observed that oxygen-seeking bacteria introduced into the system collected in the region of the spectrum where chlorophyll pigments absorb. This action spectrum gave the first indication of the effectiveness of light absorbed by accessory pigments in driving photosynthesis.

emersons / red drop effect

Emerson, 1940
Wavelengths Photosynthesis Potential

420 500 nm
500 680 nm 680 720 nm

Inefficient
Efficient Inefficient

Pigments
Photosynthetic Unit / Light Harvesting Complex / Antenna complex

-LHC I & II -Chlorophylls

8 Quanta

Chlorophyll

-Phycobilins

Electron transfer

Water is oxidized according to the following chemical reaction (Hoganson and Babcock 1997):

2 H2O O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e

Electron transfer

Pigments
Chlorophyll

Carotene

Pigments

Pigments
Chl b Chl a Bacterichl Carotene

Phycoerythrobilin

ChlorophyLL
Mg + Pyrrole Rings

Phytyl side Chain

ChlorophyLL Excitation
Approx. 200 picoseconds (1 picosecond = 1012 s).

Chemical Reaction pHOTOphosphorylation

Photophosphorylation. Photo ("light") phosphorylation (the addition of phosphate to a molecule) So what plants do is use light energy to add phosphate to ADP and phosphorylate it to ATP.

pHOTOphosphorylation
Location Thylacoid Membrane

pHOTOphosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation An electron excited by light leaves the chlorophyll in photosystem I (PS-I) and cycles back to the photosystem by traveling down an electron transport system in the membrane of the thylakoid. Non - Cyclic Photophosphorylation System involving two photosystems. Here the electrons do not cycle back to the chlorophyll.

pHOTOphosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation

pHOTOphosphorylation
Non - Cyclic Photophosphorylation

pHOTOphosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation In One light event ADP ATP Out

Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

In
Two light events Water ADP

Out
Oxygen (as waste) ATP

NADP

NADPH

Light Energy is converted in Chemical Energy

Light Independent reaction

Dark Reaction Carbon fixation

Calvin Cycle (Melvin Calvin, 1950 64)

PCR (Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction) Cycle

Calvin cycle

Calvin Cycle
1. Carboxylation 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration Phase 4. Product Synthesis
Melvin Calvin, Nobel - 1961

Regeneration of rubp

Calvin Cycle
1. Carboxylation
H2 O

RUBISCO RUBP Carboxylase

Calvin Cycle
1. Carboxylation

Calvin Cycle
1. Carboxylation 2. Reduction
3 Phosphogycerate (PGA)
Mg+2 1,3 BPGA

3 Phosphogycerate Kinase

Glyceraldehyde 3-P Dehydrogenase

Glyceradehyde 3-Phosphte

Calvin Cycle
3. Regeneration Phase
Triose Phosphate Isomerase Dihydroxy Acetone Phosphate Aldolase Glyceradehyde 3-Phosphte Glyceradehyde 3-Phosphte

Fructose 1,6 BisPhosphate Fructose 1,6 BisPhosphatase

Fructose 6BisPhosphate

Calvin Cycle
3. Regeneration Phase
Glyceradehyde 3Phosphte + Fructose 6- Transketolase BisPhosphate Erythrose 4 - P + Xylulose 5 P Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Aldolase

Sedoheptulose 1, 7 Phosphate

Sedoheptulose 1, 7 Phosphatase Sedoheptulose 7 Phosphate Ribulose 5 Phosphate + + Glyceraldehyde 3- Phosphate Transketolase Xylulose 5- Phosphate

H2O

Calvin Cycle

Calvin Cycle
1. Carboxylation 2. Reduction 3. Regeneration Phase 4. Product Synthesis

Calvin Cycle
4. Product Synthesis
Fructose 6 Phosphate
UDP - Glucose + Pyrophosphate UTP

Glucose 6 Phosphate
Glucose 1 Phosphate

Calvin Cycle
To make a molecule of glucose requires 6 turns of the Cycle

In Three CO2 Nine ATP Six NADPH

Out One G3P Nine ADP Six NADP

Calvin Cycle

pHOTOSYNTHESIS C4 Cycle
Hatch and Slack Pathway (1965) Monocots and Few Dicots with Kranz Anatomy

C3 Leaf

C4 Leaf

Kranz Anatomy
Kranz, (German for wreath) cells

Vascular Bundles are surrounded by Bundle Sheath of large chlorenchyma cells

Bundles are surrounded by Mesophyll cell (max 2 3 cells away) Chloroplasts in Bundle Cell lacks Grana and larger in size; whereas, Mesophyll cell carry it. Plasmodesmatal connection.

C4 Cycle
The basic C4 cycle consists of four stages 1. Fixation of CO2 by the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate in the mesophyll cells to form a C4 acid (malate / aspartate) 2. Transport of the C4 acids to the bundle sheath cells 3. Decarboxylation of the C4 acids within the bundle sheath cells and generation of CO2, which is then reduced to carbohydrate via the Calvin cycle 4. Transport of the C3 acid (pyruvate or alanine) that is formed by the decarboxylation step back to the mesophyll cell and regeneration of the CO2 acceptor phosphoenolpyruvate

pHOTOSYNTHESIS C4 Cycle

pHOTOSYNTHESIS C4 Cycle
pyruvateorthophosphate dikinase

C4 Cycle
Discovered in the tropical grasses, sugarcane, and maize, the C4 cycle is now known to occur in 16 families of both monocotyledons and dicotyledons, and it is particularly prominent in Gramineae (corn, millet, sorghum, sugarcane), Chenopodiaceae (Atriplex), and Cyperaceae (sedges). About 1% of all known species have C4 metabolism Elevated concentration of CO2 at the carboxylation site of

RUBISCO results in suppression of the oxygenation of ribulose1,5-bisphosphate and hence of photorespiration Light Regulates the Activity of Key C4 Enzymes

C3 plants
Calvin Cycle
First stable product 3 PGA Diffuse mesophyll, single type of chloroplast Low to High Temp. Photosynthesis Photosynthetically less efficient Rate of Glucose translocation is low

C4 plants
H & S Pathway
First stable product OAA Kranz Anatomy, Chloroplast lacks grana High Temp. Photosynthesis Photosynthetically more efficient Rate of Glucose translocation is high

pHOTOSYNTHESIS - CAM
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism / Dark CO2
Fixation The CAM mechanism enables plants to improve water use efficiency

First discovered in Bryophyllum Succulent raising acidity in halophytes in night.

Stomata are open in night and closed for day CAM plant loses 50 to 100 g of water for every gram of CO2 gained, compared with values of 250 to 300 g and 400 to 500 g for C4 and C3 plants

pHOTOSYNTHESIS - CAM
Opuntia, Kalanchoe are other examples.

Vacuolar Malic Acid in mesophyll cells contributes acidity. CO2 Uptake at night
Stomata are open at night closed during day

Malate accumulates by decarboxylation of PEP by PEPcase

In C4 plants the carboxylase is switched on, or active, during the day and in CAM plants during the night.

pHOTOSYNTHESIS - CAM

pHOTOSYNTHESIS - functions
Carbon sinks, removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and oceans by fixing it into organic chemicals. Plants also convert energy from light into chemical energy of C-C covalent bonds. Animals are carbon dioxide producers that derive their energy from carbohydrates and other chemicals produced by plants by the process of photosynthesis.