KJM327_Chapter1 1

CHAPTER 1.1
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, POWER
& ENERGY AND OHMS LAW
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UNIVERSITY OF
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Campus
KJM327_Chapter1 2
1.0 CURRENTS, VOLTAGES AND CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

1.1 Electrical current
Current is the time rate of flow of electrical charge through a conductor or circuit element.
The units are ampere (A), which are equivalent to coulombs per second (C/s). The charge on an
electron is -1.602 x 10-19 C.
Current represent in mathematical form;


A constant current of one ampere means that one coulomb of charge passes through the cross
section of a conductor each second.
To find charge (q) given current;


which t
0
is the initial time at which the charge is known.

Reference Direction
Current through a circuit element must have two information:
i) an arrow this gives the current a reference direction
ii) a value this could be a variable or unknown value

dt
t dq
t i
) (
) ( =
) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
t q dt t i t q
t
t
+ =
}
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KJM327_Chapter1 3
The actual direction of current flow in a particular circuit element may not know initially.
Therefore, start analyzing by assigning current variables and arbitrarily selecting a reference
direction as in Figure 1a. We may assign it in any direction convenient to us.




After we solve for the current values, we may find that some currents have negative values. This
indicates that the current actually flows in the direction opposite to the reference initially selected.

Direct current and alternating current

i
a
i
a

Figure 1a
I
a
(t)
I
b
(t)
I
t
(t) I
s
(t)
(a) DC current (b) AC current: Sinusoidal waveform
(c) AC current: Triangular waveform (d) AC Current: Square waveform
t
t
t
t
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KJM327_Chapter1 4
1.2 Voltages

When charge moves through circuit elements, energy can be transferred. Voltage is
the energy transferred per unit of charge that flows trough the element.
The units of voltage are volts (V), which are equivalent to joules per coulomb (J/C).

Reference polarity
Voltage a across a circuit element must have two information;
i) A plus minus sign this will establish the voltage reference direction
ii) A value this could be a variable or a known value
We often do not know the actual polarities of some of the voltages in the circuit.
Then, we simply assign voltage variables by choosing reference polarity arbitrarily as
in Figure 2a .





+
+
-
-
V
a
V
b

Figure 2a
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KJM327_Chapter1 5
1.3 Circuit Elements
Circuit elements can be classified into two broad categories;
Active elements Elements capable of generating electrical energy (Voltage and Current source)
Passive elements Elements not capable of generating electrical energy (Resistor, Capacitor,
Inductor)

IDEAL BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
ACTIVE PASIVE
Voltage source Current source
Independent
Voltage source
Dependent
Voltage source
Independent
Current source
Dependent
Current source
Resistor Capacitor Inductor
+ -
V
s

+ -
kV
x
or kI
x

I
s

kV
x
or kI
x

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KJM327_Chapter1 6
MAJOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
RESISTOR CAPACITOR INDUCTOR
Literally resist current flow
Represented by the symbol
R and unit is Ohm ()
In water analogy, a resistor
would be a narrow section of
pipe that restricts the water
flow
Have fewer free electron
thus reduced conducting
ability.
Eg. Ceramic, Mica & etc


P = resistivity of the material in -m
l = length in m
A = area in m
2
Has ability to store electrons
(charge)
Used as a rechargeable
battery, providing a stable
voltage reference
In water analogy, a
capacitor would be a tank
storing water for later use.
If the capacitor is able to
store a coulomb of charge at
one volt, it is said to have a
capacitance of 1 Farad (F).
A simple capacitor consist of
two metallic plates separated
by a non-conducting
substance between them.

When any piece of wire is
wound into a coil forms, it
forms an inductance which is
the property of opposing any
change in current
If, after a period of current
flow, an attempt is made to
interrupt the current flow, the
inductor will continue to force
current.
In water analogy, an
inductor would be a water
wheel difficult to start
spinning, but once it is
spinning, it is difficult to stop.
Energy is stored in the form
of electromagnetic field
Standard unit is Henry (H)

A
l
R =
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KJM327_Chapter1 7
2.0 POWER AND ENERGY

Power and energy calculations are important in circuit analysis. One reason is that the useful
output of an electrical system is often non-electrical. An example is the case of a kettle the
output required is heat energy.
The product of current and the voltage is the rate of energy transfer.


A positive value for power indicates that energy is absorbed by the element and a negative value
shows that energy is supplied by the element.
The power associated with the resistor can be found from any of the three formula;



To calculate the energy w delivered to a circuit element between time instant t
1
and t
2
, we
integrate power.



Here, we have explicitly indicated that power can be a function of time.

vi p =
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(VA/joules/second/watts)
R i p
2
=
vi p =
R
V
p
2
=
}
=
2
1
) (
t
t
dt t p w
KJM327_Chapter1 8
3.0 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

3.1 Application of Ohms Law and Power Calculation with Passive Sign Convention
In any expression that relates voltage to current, apply this sign convention:
Use the given sign of the current if the current enters the element through its
positive terminal. Otherwise (i.e. if it enters the element through its negative
terminal), use the opposite sign of the current.






Formulas relating voltage and current;
Ohms Law


Formula of power in relation to voltage and current for any circuit element





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+ -
V
x

R
I
A

- +
V
x

R
I
A

R I Vx
A
=
R I Vx
A
=
IR V =
VI P=
V=voltage, I=current, R=resistor
V=voltage, I=current, P=Power
KJM327_Chapter1 9
4.0 BASIC CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

A node is a point that joins circuit elements. Between two different nodes, there must be at least
one circuit element.















An essential node is a node that joins MORE than 2 elements.



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Node
Node
A node
Another node
Another node Another node Another
node
Another node
DC
DC
DC
DC
KJM327_Chapter1 10

4.1 Series Connection
A circuit, or a set of circuit elements, are said to be connected in series if there is only
one electrical path through them.












A circuit, or a set of circuit elements, are said to be connected in series if there is only
one electrical path through them.

The same current flows through all series-connected elements. (Equation of continuity)





+ -
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
I
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KJM327_Chapter1 11
4.1 Series Connection

A circuit, or a set of circuit elements, are said to be connected in series if there is only one
electrical path through them.

The same current flows through all series-connected elements. (Equation of continuity)

A set of series-connected resistors is equivalent to a single resistor having the sum of the
resistance values in the set.

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+ -
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
I
+ -
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
V
I
KJM327_Chapter1 12
4.1 Series Connection


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Potential drops add in series.


+ -
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
I
V
1
V
2
V
3
( )
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1

R R R I IR V
IR V IR V IR V
eq
+ + = =
= = =
KJM327_Chapter1 13

4.2 Parallel Connection
A circuit, or a set of circuit elements, are said to be connected in parallel if the circuit
current is divided among them.
The same potential difference exists across all parallel-connected elements.















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R
2
R
3
R
1
+ -
V
I
1
I
2
I
3
I

=

I
1

+

I
2

+

I
3
KJM327_Chapter1 14

4.2 Parallel Connection
What is the equivalent resistance?
The equation of continuity requires that: I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3















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R
eq
+ -
V
I
I
R
2
R
3
R
1
+ -
V
I
1
I
2
I
3
I

=

I
1

+

I
2

+

I
3
KJM327_Chapter1 15

4.2 Parallel Connection














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Applying Ohms Law:


R
2
R
3
R
1
+ -
V
I
1
I
2
I
3
I

=

I
1

+

I
2

+

I
3
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
R R R R
R
V
R R R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
I
I I I
R
V
R
V
I
eq
eq
eq eq
+ + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = + + =
+ + = = =
KJM327_Chapter1 16

4.3 Series - Parallel Connection
Resistive loads may be so connected that both series and parallel connections are
present.














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+ -
V
R
1
R
2
R
4
R
3
R
5
R
6
KJM327_Chapter1 17

4.3 Series - Parallel Connection
Simplify this network by small steps:













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+ -
V
R
1
R
2
R
7
R
8
4 3 7
R R R + =
6 5
8
6 5 8
1 1
1

1 1 1
R R
R
R R R
+
= + =
+ -
V
R
1
R
2
R
4
R
3
R
5
R
6
KJM327_Chapter1 18

4.3 Series - Parallel Connection
Continue the simplification:












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7 2 1
9
7 2 1 9
1 1 1
1

1 1 1 1
R R R
R
R R R R
+ +
= + + =
+ -
V
R
9
R
8
4 3 7
R R R + =
+ -
V
R
1
R
2
R
7
R
8
KJM327_Chapter1 19

4.3 Series - Parallel Connection
Finally:













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9 8 10
R R R + =
+ -
V
R
9
R
8
+ -
V
R
10
KJM327_Chapter1 20
4.4 Delta-Wye Equivalent Circuits

The Y and delta connected resistors can be converted to each other.
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R
3
R
2

R
1

R
c

R
a

R
b

a
c b
c
a
b
Figure Figure
In figure and , the nodes
a,b and c represents essential
nodes connected to other parts
of a circuit.
KJM327_Chapter1 21
In some circuits, none of them are in series or parallel. If stuck in such cases, try to spot a delta (or
wye) connection. If there are such connections, try replacing the connection with its wye (or delta)
equivalent circuit.

Transform Delta Wye









Transform Wye Delta

c b a
c b
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
1
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c b a
c a
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
3
c b a
b a
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
2
3
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
b
+ +
=
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
a
+ +
=
2
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
c
+ +
=
R
3
R
2

R
1

R
c

R
a

R
b

a
c b
c
a
b
Figure Figure
KJM327_Chapter1 22
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS:
KVL,KCL,NODAL
AND MESH ANALYSIS
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1.0 KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

KCL states that the sum of currents at any node equals zero.







In order to find the total current, we may choose either to add the current entering the node (and
subtract the ones leaving) or to add the current leaving the node (and subtract the ones entering the
node).
With KCL, it is obvious that elements in series carry the same current.
0 2 ) 3 ( 5 = +i
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i
5A
2A
-3A
Applying KCL,

A i 6 =
i
1

i
2

i
2

i
3

KCL at the node;
2 1
i i =
3 2
i i =
Figure 1a
Figure 1b
KJM327_Chapter1 24
1.0 KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

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KJM327_Chapter1 25
1.0 KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)

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KJM327_Chapter1 26
1.0 KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)
WORK YOUR HAND
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KJM327_Chapter1 27
2.0 KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

KVL states that the sum of voltage drops around any closed path is zero.






It is our choice whether to apply KVL clockwise or anticlockwise. As we go round the loop, it is also
our choice to add the voltage drops (and subtract the voltage rise) or add the voltage rise (and
subtract the voltage drops). Both choices are correct.
However, we will more commonly choose to go clockwise and add the voltage drop because this will
be the way we apply KVL when we perform Mesh Analysis in the future topics.
With KVL, it is obvious that elements in parallel have the same voltage drop across them.

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+
-
+ -
+
-
V
2V
+
-
10V
Applying KVL clockwise, adding the voltage drops,
0 2 10 15 = + + + V
V V 3 =
+ + +
- - -
V
3
V
2
V
1

Figure 2a
Figure 2b
KVL around loop 1 and 2,

2 1
V V =
3 2
V V =
15V
-
KJM327_Chapter1 28
2.0 KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

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+ 50v -
KJM327_Chapter1 29
2.0 KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

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KJM327_Chapter1 30

3.0 Voltage Divider Rule
When a voltage has to be divided among various resistors in series, the voltage is divided as
follows;







4.0 Current Divider Rule
When a current has to divide among various resistors connected in parallel, the current is divided as
in Figure below;





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+
-
V
R
1

R
2

+
+
-
-
V
1

V
2

V
R R
R
V
2 1
1
1
+
=
V
R R
R
V
2 1
2
2
+
=
I I
1
I
2

R
1
R
2

I
R R
R
I
2 1
1
2
+
= I
R R
R
I
2 1
2
1
+
=
KJM327_Chapter1 31
5.0 NODAL ANALYSIS

Let us find the voltage across all the elements, hence the current in a circuit.
Based on Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL).

Basic Steps
Consider circuit shown in figure 4a.
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I
S1
I
S2

R
5
R
4

R
3

R
1

R
2

Step 1: Mark Essential Nodes
Some nodes look like different nodes yet they are actually the same nodes. REMEMBER: between
Two different nodes, there should be at lease one element.
KJM327_Chapter1 32
Step 2: Reference Node
Select a reference node. Mark the reference node with the earth sign.
A reference node is the node from where all the other node voltages are referred. (i.e.the node
that is considered to be at 0V).
The essential node that joins the most number of elements and at one end of a voltage/current
source may be a good choice.
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I
S1
I
S2

R
5
R
4

R
3

R
1

R
2

Step 3: Assign Unknown Node Voltages
Assign node voltages at the marked essential nodes.
I
S1
I
S2

R
5
R
4

R
3

R
1

R
2

V
1

V
3

V
2

KJM327_Chapter1 33
Step 4: Decide on Number of Equations Required
Decide on the number of equations required to solve the circuit.
Referring to the example, there are 3 unknowns ( i.e V
1
, V
2
and V
3
). Therefore, we need 3
simultaneous equations.
As we go deeper, this step will require a little bit of consideration.

Step 5: Perform KCL at the Selected Nodes
Based on the number of equations we require, select the nodes that we want to apply KCL.
Formulate the node-voltage equations by applying KCL and ohms law at the selected nodes.

Referring to the example:

KCL: node 1


KCL: node 2


KCL: node 3
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I
S2

R
5
R
4

R
3

R
1

R
2

V
1

V
3

V
2

0
2
2 1
1
1
1
=

R
V V
R
V
I
S
I
s1
0
5
3 2
4
3 2
2
2
2 1
=

R
V V
R
V V
I
R
V V
S
0
5
3 2
4
3 2
3
3
=

+
R
V V
R
V V
R
V
KJM327_Chapter1 34
Step 6: Solve The Equations
We have three simultaneous equations to solve for the three unknowns.
Solve the equations.

Circuit with voltage source

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10V
R
1

R
2

R
3

R
4

V
1

V
2

V
3

15V
-
-
+
+
Supernode
2
Supernode
1
Supernode Equations;

KVL: Supernode 1
KVL: Supernode 2
KCL: Node 2
V V V 10
1 2
=
V V 15
3
=
V V 15 0
3
=
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
0
4 3 1 2
= + + + I I I I
0
4
2
3
3 2
1
3 1
2
1
= +

+
R
V
R
V V
R
V V
R
V
KJM327_Chapter1 35
6.0 MESH ANALYSIS

To find the current through all the elements, hence the element voltage in a systematic way.
Based on Kirchhoffs Voltage Law.
Basically, Mesh Analysis assign unknown currents to all the meshes in the circuit.

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-
+
-
+
40V 20V
2
8
6 4
6 I
1
I
2
I
3

Basic Steps
Consider circuit shown in Figure 5a

Step 1: Label Meshes
Label all meshes in the circuit with a clockwise mesh current.

Step 2: Decide on number of equation required
Decide on how many equations are required in order to solve the circuits. The number of unknown mesh
Could represent this.
KJM327_Chapter1 36
Step 3: Perform KVL at the Mesh
Formulate mesh current equations by applying Kirchoffs Voltage Law for each mesh in the circuit. In
Mesh analysis, the Kirchhoffs Voltage Law is applied clockwise with the voltage drops added and the
voltage rise subtracted.
0 ) ( 8 2 40
2 1 1
= + + I I I
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-
+
-
+
40V 20V
2
8
6 4
6 I
1
I
2
I
3

KVL: Mesh 1
KVL: Mesh 2
0 ) ( 6 6 ) ( 8
3 2 2 2 1
= + + I I I I I
KVL: Mesh 3 0 20 4 ) ( 6
3 3 2
= + + I I I
I
6

I
5
I
4

I
4
= I
1
I
2

I
5
= I
2
I
3

I
6
=I
3

Mesh and branch current relation:
KJM327_Chapter1 37
Step 4: Solve the Equations
Having all the necessary equations, solve the equations.

Mesh Currents In Circuit Containing Current Source











ADDITIONAL NOTES!!
Mesh currents are the assigned currents which flow around the perimeter of the mesh.
Branch currents are the actual currents that enters the terminals of the circuit elements.
Branch currents are not quite the same as mesh currents. Only branches forming the outer most
boundary of the circuit will have its branch current the same as its mesh current.

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-
+
I
1
I
2

15 5
10
2A 10V
KVL: Mesh 2 0 10 5 ) ( 10
2 2 1
= + + I I I
A I 2
1
= At mesh 1
PLEASE NOTE!!!
Do not write KVL equation in
Mesh 1, to avoid increasing
the number of unknown
KJM327_Chapter1 38
Class Homework
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KJM327_Chapter1 39
Class Homework
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