Research Design

A plan for gathering data for answering specific research questions. Constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data Essentials of Research Design:
An activity and time based plan A plan based on research question A guide for selecting source and type of information o A framework for specifying the relationship among the study variables
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Types of Research Design

Exploratory Research Design Descriptive Research Design (Diagnostic Research Design) Causal Research Design (Experimental Research Design)

Exploratory Research Design

Also known as formulative research studies, as they are helpful in formulating the problem or developing working hypothesis. Conducted when problem is not clear. Can be performed using a literature search, surveying certain people about their experience, focus group and case studies. Useful when researcher lack a clear idea of the problem they will meet during the study.

 When surveying people, exploratory research studies would not try to acquire a representative sample, but, rather seek to interview those who are knowledgeable and who might be able to provide insights concerning the relationships among the variables. Helpful if area is new or vague Ex. Evaluating a training programme

Descriptive Research Design

Describes a phenomena or characteristics associated with a subject population (the who, what, when, where, and how of a topic) Estimates the proportion of population that have these characteristics Discovery of associations among different variables

Causal Research Design

Also known as experimental studies Researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between variables

Basic Principles of Causal Research

Principle of Replication Experiment should be repeated more than once. Principle of Randomization Provide protection against external factors

Types of causal research design

1.Before and after without control design 2.After only with control design 3.Before and after with control design

Sampling
One taste from a drink tells us whether it is sweet or sour The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, we may draw conclusions about the entire population A population element is the individual participant or object on which the measurement is taken. It is the unit of the study

Sampling contd
A items in any field of inquiry constitutes a Universe or Population A census involves a complete count of every individual member of the population of interest. Ex. If 4000 files defines a population, a census would obtain We call the listing of all population elements from which the sample will be drawn the sampling frame

Why Sample [Objectives of Sampling]

There are several compelling reasons for sampling:
Lower cost Grater Accuracy of Result: with few respondents better supervision, more thorough investigation and better processing is possible o Grater speed of data collection o Availability of population elements
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Sample v/s Census

Two conditions are necessary for a census study: 1.Feasible when the population is small and variable, any sample we draw may not be representative from the population from which it is drawn. 2.Necessary when the elements are quite different from each other (Heterogeneous Population)

Good Sample
The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it represents the characteristics of the population it purports to represent In measurement terms, sample must be valid Validity of sample depends on two considerations:
Accuracy : the degree to which biasness is absent from the sample o Precision: How closely the sample represents the population
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Characteristics of a Good Sample

It must be representative Sampling errors should be minimum Optimum use of funds Biasness should be absent Sample should be such that the result of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe.

Sampling Technique
Sampling Technique

Non Probability

Probability

Convenie nce Sampling

Judgment al Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Non Probability Sampling

Sampling technique that do not use chance selection procedures. They rely on the personal judgment / experience of the researcher. Types :
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Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Convenience
A non probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer.

Judgmental Sampling
A form of Non Probability sampling in which the population elements are purposely selected based on the judgment / experience of the researcher.

Quota Sampling
A non probability sampling technique that is a two stage restricted judgmental sampling. The first stage consist of developing control categories or quotas of population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment.

Snowball Sampling
A non probability sampling technique in which an initial group of respondents is selected randomly. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals or information provided by the initial respondents. This process may be carried out in waves by obtaining referrals from referrals.

 A probability sampling technique in which each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Every element is selected independently of every other element and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame.

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Systematic Sampling
A probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.

 Steps in Systematic Sampling:

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Prepare a sampling frame Identify skip interval K

Population size

K = -------------------------Sample size

Identify the random start: By lottery method pick out the starting number o Draw the sample by choosing every kth element
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Stratified Sampling
This method is useful when the population consist of a number of heterogeneous subpopulation and the members within a given subpopulation are relatively homogeneous. Steps in Stratifies Sampling:
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Population of interest is subdivided into subpopulation, on the basis of their age, gender, income and so on, called strata.

 From each strata a sub sample is drawn in proportion to its size. For drawing sample from sub population use simple random sampling
Engineering Applied Science

IFTM University Pharmacy Management

10% [Pharmacy+ Management+ Engineering+ Applied Science] = Desired Sample

Cluster Sampling (Area Sampling Method)

This method is useful when population consist of a large number of similar groups which are geographically distant.

Steps in sampling design

1.Type of Universe/Population
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Universe is finite or infinite

Sampling unit may be a geographical area such as state, district, village, factory/industry premises (various subsections)

2.Sampling Unit

3.Source List Sampling frame

iv. Size of sample :

Refers to number of items to be selected from the universe The sample size should neither be excessively large nor too small. It should be optimum. Optimum size is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, effectiveness, reliability and flexibility Factors deciding sampling size: Accuracy, Precision, Parameters of interest

SAMPLING ERROR

 Sampling Error = Frame Error + Chance Error + Response Error The magnitude of the sampling error depends on the nature of universe; the more homogeneous the universe, the smaller the sampling error Sampling error is inversely proportional to size of sample

Non Sampling Error

May creep in during the process of collecting actual information and such errors occur in all surveys whether census or sample
Total Error = Sampling Error + Non Sampling Error

DATA & ITS TYPES

Primary Data
Data never gathered before. Advantage: find data you need to suit your purpose Disadvantage: usually more costly and time consuming than collecting secondary data Collected after secondary data is collected

Types of Primary Data

Demographic/Socioeconomic o Age, Sex, Income, Marital Status, Occupation Psychological/Lifestyle o Activities, Interests, Personality Traits Attitudes/Opinions o Preferences, Views, Feelings, Inclinations Awareness/Knowledge o Facts about product, features, price, uses Intentions o Planned or Anticipated Behavior Motivations o Why People Buy (Needs, Wants, Wishes, IdealSelf) Behavior o Purchase, Use, Timing, Traffic Flow

Primary Data Can Be Gathered By:

Communication Methods
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Interacting with respondents Asking for their opinions, attitudes, motivations, characteristics No interaction with respondents Letting them behave naturally and drawing conclusions from their actions

Observation Methods
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Communication Methods of Primary Data Collection

Methods include:
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Surveys Focus Groups Panels

Highly versatile in terms of types of data Generally more speedy Typically more cost effective
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Electronic media have made observation cheaper Activities, Interests, Personality Traits

Secondary Data
Pre-existing data not gathered for purposes of the current research Not new data second hand Secondary data Back up data secondary in use

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Resource implications usually easier to gather than primary data Unobtrusive already collected Quality and permanence of data eg. government surveys
Disadvantages Suitability Cost and access may still be difficult in spite of resource advantages Validity of some secondary data (eg. Internet sources)

Primary vs. Secondary Data

Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand. Secondary data are data which have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.

A Comparison of Primary & Secondary Data

Primary Data Secondary Data Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems Collection process Very involved Rapid & easy Collection cost High Relatively low Collection time Long Short

QUESTIONNAIRE

POINT OF CLARIFICATION
Terms survey and questionnaire are often used interchangeably
Survey refers to a descriptive research technique or methodology (also includes interviews, and focus groups) o Questionnaire refers to a paper and pencil instrument through which information is obtained
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For the purposes of outcomes assessment, questionnaires are frequently developed to survey a population

QUESTIONNAIRES
Useful for surveying groups of any size Typically designed to determine opinions, attitudes or present practices

INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Is the development of a new questionnaire ...
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Necessary? Feasible? Web Based? Paper and pencil? Combination?

Select mode of administration

QUESTIONNAIRE PLANNING
1. Determine the Objective What do you want to ask and to whom? Consider how the data will be analyzed. What information is needed? 2. Determine the Mode of Administration Paper and pencil o Cost effective, but low response rate Web / E-mail based o Cost effective, higher response rate, some suspicion of the medium Combination o Can be administratively cumbersome

QUESTIONNAIRE PLANNING
Determine the Sampling Methodology o To whom will you send the questionnaire? Who can supply the information? o Will everyone be surveyed? ALL current students? ALL alumni? If yes, this is a census of the finite population o The selection of a representative sample of the population may be more effective based on time and cost of administration Decision depends on the size of the finite population

CONSTRUCTING the QUESTIONNAIRE

Consider what objective each question measures Three to five questions per objective is recommended How many questions? o Find a balance: long enough to obtain the necessary information but short enough so respondents wont lose interest. o Questionnaires that are too long wont be completed o Goal: 25-30 minutes MAX

DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Question Formats: Open Ended Questions
Allow respondents to express feelings and expand on ideas. o Question should be phrased to avoid a one word response. What aspects of the Sociology program best prepared you for your current position? o Open ended questions at the beginning of the questionnaire may be discouraging to respondent include one or two at the end o Analysis of responses can be challenging
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QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
Question Formats: Closed Questions
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Ranking Forces the respondent to rank order responses based on a value judgment. Rank the following items with regard to how you spend time at home/hostel from 1 (spend the most time) to 5 (spend the least time). _____ Studying _____ Socializing _____ Volunteering _____ Working at a part time job _____ Exercising

 Question Formats: Closed Questions

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QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT

Checklist
A number of possible answers are provided and the respondent is asked to choose one or choose all that apply. How did you finance your University education? Choose all that apply. _____ Parental contribution _____ Student Loan _____ Work Study _____ Off campus employment _____ Other (please specify): _____________

 Question Formats: Closed Questions

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QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT

Scaled items
Very common Indicate strength of agreement or disagreement with a statement. Numbers are assigned to each response on the continuum The RM curriculum at IFTM University adequately prepared me for my current position.

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Strongly DisagreeNeutral / No Agree Opinion Disagree

Strongly Agree

 Question Formats: Closed Questions

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QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT

Suggestions for writing scaled items Use positively worded or negatively worded items consistently Use an odd number of responses along the continuum to allow for a neutral response Anchors may be different based on focus of the item (Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree; Frequently Never; Very Good Very Poor) Keep items short

QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
Question Formats: Categorical
Typical demographic questions: Yes/No/?, Male/Female o Answers fall into certain categories respondents pick the one that applies to them o Analyzed using frequency, proportion, percentages o 2 considerations: Questions on a continuum should stay on a continuum if they will be directly analyzed Example: Age allow respondent to write in their age rather than check off a box for their age range Categories must be collectively exhaustive & mutually exclusive (next slide)
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QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT
Problematic: Number of hours spent studying per week: o 18 21 o 21 24 o 24 27 Categories are not mutually exclusive Corrected: Number of hours spent studying per week: o 18 21 o 22 25 o 26 29

SUMMARY OF STEPS
1. Determine the Objective (consider analyses) 2. Determine the Mode of Administration 3. Determine the Sampling Methodology 4. Construct the Questionnaire 5. Institutional Approval 6. Conduct the Pilot Study 7. Write the Initial Communication 8. Send the Questionnaire 9. Follow up 10.Analyze the Results

1. Questionnaire can be sent via mail but schedule is done only Personally 2. Questionnaire is cheaper method than schedule (for schedule you have to move everywhere) 3. Questionnaire can be returned without answering all the questions but, in schedule, enumerator ensures the filling all the questions. 4. Questionnaire can be filled by anyone but schedule is always filled by enumerator. 5. Respondent should be literate & co-operative in Questionnaire but schedule can be filled by illiterate. 6. Risk of incomplete & wrong information is more in Questionnaire. 7. Physical appearance of Questionnaire has to be attractive but not such case is necessary with schedule. 8.Success of Questionnaire depends on its design but in case of Schedule it depends on honesty & competency of Enumerator.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE

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