What is it?

It is a glass or a plastic fiber through which signals in the form of electromagnetic waves are sent Their transmission properties are superior to that of sending signals in the form of electric current through copper cables

Optical fibers work on the principle of TIR absolutely essential

Rarer medium

denser medium

Typical structure of a optical fiber Core Cladding Coating thermoplastic

Strengthening fibers - aramid

Cable jacket made from PVC

B A A

Only rays incident at angles lesser than that made by the ray AB will undergo total internal reflection and will propagate down the fibre. The maximum angle made by the incident ray above which there is no total internal reflection is called as the angle of acceptance.

C
D

B 0 A

n0Sin(0) = n1Sin(1) n1Sin(C) = n2Sin(90) 1+ C = 90 n1Cos(1) = n2

At the core-air interface At the core-cladding interface

Cos(1) = n2/n1

Numerical aperture = n0Sin(0) = n1Sin(1) = n1[1(n2/n1)2]1/2 = [n12 n22]1/2

C
D

B 0

Cone of angle of acceptance

Certain important facts

If the diameter of an optical fiber is of the order of the wavelength of light used then wave optics must be considered and we call such a fiber as an optical wave guide If the diameter is large compared to the wavelength of light then geometric optics suffices and ray concept is used.

 If the diameter of an OF is D and its length is L and if the angles of incidence and refraction at its end face are i and r respectively then Actual length travelled by light is l = L/cos(r) = n1L[n12 Sin2(i)]-1/2 Number of reflections suffered N = l Sin(r)/D 1= l Sin(i)/D(n12 Sin2 i)1/2 1. If N is large the term 1 can be ignored.

 n0Sin(0) is referred to as the numerical aperture and its square i.e. [n0Sin(0)]2 is a measure of the light gathering capacity of the fiber. The surface of an OF must be kept smooth (free from moisture, dust, oil etc.) so that there is no leakage of signal via frustrated total internal reflection (FTIR) If the number of fibers are packed in close proximity light can leak from one fiber to another. This is called cross-talk. This is one of the reasons why each OF is surrounded by cladding which also provides insulation between fibers.

Types of optical fibers

Single mode step index Multi mode graded index Multi mode step index

Single mode step index

Multi mode step index Multi mode graded index

Type of OF

Core diameter Cladding thickness

Single mode step index

Multimode step index Multimode graded index

10m
50 - 200 m 20 - 90 m

20 m
20 m 20 m

window 800 900nm

1250 1350nm 1500 1600nm

Operating wavelength 850nm

1310nm 1550nm

modes
A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of an optical fiber. For a given mode, a change in wavelength can prevent the mode from propagating along the fiber. The mode is no longer bound to the fiber. The mode is said to be cut off. Modes that are bound at one wavelength may not exist at longer wavelengths. The wavelength at which a mode ceases to be bound is called the cutoff wavelength for that mode. However, an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one mode. This mode is referred to as the fundamental mode of the fiber. The fundamental mode can never be cut off.

Advantage of a graded index OF

Higher order mode lower order mode axial mode

 Depending on the launch angle there can be thousands of different ray paths or modes by which energy can propagate down the core. Each mode corresponds to a different transit time. Higher angle rays travel longer paths, each time reflecting from one side to another. They thus take longer time to come to the other end than axial or lower angle rays. This is referred to as intermodal dispersion. Information to be sent is generally coded and the signal has a specific shape. The different transit times lead to distortion of signal shape and thus its quality.

 Total time delay between the slowest and the fastest rays are tmax tmin = [Ln1/n2]/(c/n1) Ln1/c = Ln12/cn2 Ln1/c = Ln1[n1/n2 1]/c

Input signal

output signal

Step index fibers limit the frequency of the input signal

 The problem is solved by using a graded index OF where the refractive index of the core varies gradually from the centre to the core-cladding boundary. The rays now follow a curved path instead of a zigzag path. The refractive index being higher at the centre rays taking shorter paths are slowed more than the rays taking longer paths. This immediately leads to lesser difference in the transit times and a s result signal distortion is greatly reduced thus enabling higher frequencies to be sent.

Normalized frequency parameter or the V-number

NORMALIZED FREQUENCY. - Electromagnetic waves bound to an optical fiber are described by the fiber's normalized frequency. The normalized frequency determines how many modes a fiber can support. Normalized frequency is a dimensionless quantity. Normalized frequency is also related to the fiber's cutoff wavelength. Normalized frequency (V) is defined as:

where n1 is the core index of refraction, n2 is the cladding index of refraction, a is the core diameter, and is the wavelength of light in air.

 The number of modes that can exist in a fiber is a function of V. As the value of V increases, the number of modes supported by the fiber increases. Multimode optical fiber can support a different number of modes. For step index multimode fibers the number of modes N = V2/2 For graded index multimode fibers N = V2/4

 Fractional refractive index change (FRIC) or relative refractive index change (RRIC) = [n12 n22]/2n12 If n1 and n2 are close then [n1 n2]/n1. In terms of FRIC numerical aperture can be expressed as n1[2 ]. In terms of FRIC V-number can be expressed as [2/] an1(2)1/2

Attenuation
What is attenuation? A steady decline in the strength of signals as it travels down the length of the fiber or a loss in the intensity of the light as it travels down the length of the optical fiber If I0 is the intensity of light incident on the leading face of the optical fiber and I is the intensity after it travels a length L of the fiber then we define attenuation by the parameter which is given by (dB/Km) =-[10/L]log(I/I0). Normally is measured in decibels (dB)/Km.

 This formula is valid for signals not in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. For optical signals (visible range) = [10/L]Ln(I/I0). Normally optical fibers work in the infrared or far infrared range and hence the first formula will be considered.

Causes of attenuation

INTRINSIC

EXTRINSIC

IMPURITIES BENDING COUPLING AND LEAKY MODES

INTRINSIC CAUSES
IMPURITIES

SCATTERING
RAYLEIGH (depends on -4) scattering accounts for 96% loss. The incoming radiation collides elastically with atoms of the glass which re radiates it. When scattered light support forward travel no attenuation occurs. If not light is attenuated

ABSORPTION

Impurities, like OH-, Cr, Fe, Mn and Ni can absorb light energy which is converted into vibrational energy of the atoms. Also Si-O coupling absorbs in IR. This cause accounts for about 3% of loss

MACROBEND

EXTRINSIC CAUSES

MICROBEND MISALIGNMENT OF FIBERS

COUPLING AND LEAKY MODES

GEOMETRIC NON- UNIFORMITY AT CORE CLADDING BOUNDARY

Bending strains the fiber. The bending strain will affect the refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific area. As a result, light traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs.

MACROBEND

A macrobend is a large-scale bend that is visible; for example, a fiber wrapped around a person's finger. This loss is generally reversible once bends are corrected. To prevent macrobends, all optical fiber has a minimum bend radius specification that should not be exceeded. This is a restriction on how much bend a fiber can withstand before experiencing problems in optical performance or mechanical reliability.

MICROBEND

The second extrinsic cause of attenuation is a microbend. This is a small-scale distortion, generally indicative of pressure on the fiber. Microbending may be related to temperature, tensile stress, or crushing force. Like macrobending, microbending will cause a reduction of optical power in the glass. Microbending is very localized, and the bend may not be clearly visible upon inspection. With bare fiber, microbending may be reversible; in the cabling process, it may not.

Coherent bundle fibers are perfectly aligned, stuck together by epoxy resin, ends polished perfectly flat.
Incoherent bundle fibers are imperfectly aligned, ends are not polished perfectly flat. The fibers will not permit themselves to be stuck together perfectly. Incoherent bundle

Coherent bundle

Mode transmission Mode coupling

Modes are not confined to the core of the fiber. The modes extend partially into the cladding material. Low-order modes penetrate the cladding only slightly. In low-order modes, the electric and magnetic fields are concentrated near the center of the fiber. However, high-order modes penetrate further into the cladding material. In high-order modes, the electrical and magnetic fields are distributed more toward the outer edges of the fiber. This penetration of low-order and high-order modes into the cladding region indicates that some portion is refracted out of the core. The refracted modes may become trapped in the cladding due to the dimension of the cladding region. The modes trapped in the cladding region are called cladding modes. As the core and the cladding modes travel along the fiber, mode coupling occurs. Mode coupling is the exchange of power between two modes. Mode coupling to the cladding results in the loss of power from the core modes.

Different modes in terms of electromagnetic waves

Mode leakage
Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the fiber. For a mode to remain within the core, the mode must meet certain boundary conditions. A mode remains bound if the propagation constant meets the following boundary condition:

where n1 and n2 are the index of refraction for the core and the cladding, respectively. When the propagation constant becomes smaller than 2n2/, power leaks out of the core and into the cladding. Generally, modes leaked into the cladding are lost in a few centimeters. However, leaky modes can carry a large amount of power in short fibers.

Ref: M.Armugam, Pramana J.Phy, Vol. 57, Nos 5 & 6, 2001

Mechanisms generating intrinsic losses

1. Tail of infrared absorption by Si-O couplingit is present at higher wavelengths around 1.4 mm to 1.6 mm. 2. Tail of ultraviolet absorption due to electron transitionit is present at lower wavelengths near 0.8 mm. This will produce a loss of 0.3 dB/km. 3. Rayleigh scattering due to spatial fluctuation of refractive index and is inversely proportional to 4it produces a maximum loss in the ultraviolet region only. In the wavelength region around 0.8 mm to1 mm, it gives a loss of 0.6 dB/km. 4. Absorption by molecular vibration of OH impurityfundamental absorption due to hydroxyl (OH) ions is present at l=2:8 mm. But its harmonics occur at wavelengths 1.38 mm and 0.95 mm respectively. This kind of absorption is almost eliminated by the modified chemical vapor deposition process adopted for the fiber preform production reducing the water content in the fiber to below 10 parts per billion. 5. Absorption by transition metal impurities like Cr, V, Fe,Mn and Nithis absorption produces a loss at wavelengths greater than 0.8 mm. In ultra low loss fibers, this absorption is practically negligible. 6. Thus it is found that in the case of pure silica fibers the transmission losses are reduced to a minimum value at 1.55 mm wavelength. At 1.3 mm also, the transmission losses are minimum but the net attenuation is slightly greater with respect to the wavelength 1.55 mm.

 Mechanisms generating extrinsic losses: 1. Geometrical non-uniformity at the corecladding boundary. 2. Imperfect connection or alignment between fibers. 3. Microbending. 4. Radiation of leaky modes.

Optical communication point to point

Why optical fibers? Wider bandwidth (1013 1015Hz) Low transmission loss (erbium doped SiO2) Dielectric waveguide Signal security Small size and weight

Block diagram
Optical source Optical mod.

OF

Optical detector

Optical demod.

Electrical i/p

Electrical o/p

transmitter

Optical fiber cable

receiver

Optical source Optical detectors

hetero-junction semiconductor LEDs based photodiodes

lasers (gallium arsenide)

Signalling process
Creating the optical signal using a transmitter Relaying the signal along the fiber Ensuring signal strength Reception of signal Conversion of optical signal into electrical one

Current usage of OF communication

Telephone Internet Cable television

Generations of OF communications
Gen (m) Bit rate (Mb/s) 0.8 1.3 1.55 1.55 1.55 4.5 Repeater Loss spacing dB/Km (Km) 10 1 <1 <0.2 <0.002 <0.002 Existed upto 1980 1987 1990 2000

I II III IV V

1.7 X 102 50 104 105 >109 70 100 >100