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A Power system enters a state of voltage instability when A disturbance, An increase in load demand, or A change in system condition causes progressive and uncontrollable voltage drop. Main cause : Inability of the power system to meet the demand for reactive power Considering the characteristics of a transmission system, generators, loads and compensating devices we can better understand the phenomenon.
= /( + ) = =
I,
and
VR
PR
Fig. 1
1 = Where =
cos
The load impedance is decreased to increase load demand, increases rapidly at first and then decreases after reaching a point of maximum power .
Maximum power occurs only when is equal to the voltage drop in the line, i.ewhen / =1. The operating condition at maximum power represents the limit for satisfactory operation. Upon higher load demand the control of power cannot be done by altering load impedance as lowering load impedance causes power to decrease. Depending upon the load characteristics the voltage will progressively decrease and the system will become unstable .
With a constant impedance static load characteristics, the system stabilizes at power and voltage levels below desired values
With a constant power load characteristics, the system becomes unstable through load bus voltage collapse
With other characteristic the voltage is determined by composite characteristic of the transmission line and load. If the load is supplied with power through a ULTC(Under Load Tap Changer) it will attempt to increase the voltage, which results in reduction of effective load impedance .This causes further progressive reduction in and finally enters a state of voltage instability.
Fig. 3 The above figure shows the relationship between and ,for a constant source voltage and taking different values of power factor. Operating points above the critical points represent satisfactory operating conditions
QR
Fig. 4
The above figure represents characteristics of a simple radial system with different / ratio. The system is stable in region where the derivative / is positive. The voltage stability limit is reached when the derivative reaches zero. The QV curve at the right side represent stable operation and to the left is the unstable operation
Generator characteristics :
Generator AVRs are the most important means of voltage control in a power system. During low voltage conditions, the reactive power demand on the generator increases but due to the field current limit and/or armature current limit, maintaining constant terminal voltage is not possible. With constant field current, the point of constant voltage is behind the synchronous reactance which increases the network reactance noticeably causing voltage collapse.
To show the impact of loss of generator voltage control capability consider the system shown consisting of a large load, an infinite bus and a generator regulating voltage .
Impact of loss of regulation of intermediate bus voltage With voltage maintained at the bus, the V-P characteristics is shown by curve 1. When the field current limit is hit the bus voltage is no longer maintained and V-P characteristics follows curve 2. Point A on curve 1 represents a more stable operating condition than it on curve 2.
LOAD Characteristics:
Load characteristics have an important influence on system stability since stable operation of a power system depends on the ability to continuously match the electrical output of generating units to the electrical load on the system. In power system stability and power flow studies, a load model is used to represent the composite load characteristics as seen from bulk power delivery points. Load modelling is categorized into static models and dynamic models. A static load model expresses the characteristics of the load at any instant of time as algebraic functions of the bus voltage magnitude and frequency at that instant . A dynamic load model is required for systems where the amplitudes of voltage/frequency change is large. Its needed for the study of voltage stability and long term stability, and for systems with large concentrations of motors.
Static model :
traditionally, the exponential model represents the voltage dependancy of load characteristics = , =
where a & b are the load parameters,
Alternatively, a polynomial model is widely used = 1 + 2 + 3 , = 1 + 2 + 3 this model is also referred to as the ZIP model.
2 2
Dynamic Model:
Since 60 to 70% of total energy is absorbed by the motors, therefore the dynamics attributable to motors are the most significant aspects of dynamic characteristics of system loads.
Other aspects are discharge lamps below certain voltage goes off and restarts after voltage recovers thus there is few seconds delay. operation of protective relays(thermal & overcurrent).Many industrial motors have starters with electromagnetically held contactors which open at voltages 0.55 to 0.75 pu dropout time is of the order of few cycles . Small motors on refrigerators or air conditions have thermal overload protection which trip at about 10 to 30 sec. thermostatic control of loads such as coolers, heaters, refrigerators etc. response of ULTCs on Distribution transformers, voltage regulators and voltage controlled capacitor banks.
The Q-V curves with sending end voltage constant, for four different values of receiving end load at unity p.f combined with Q-V characteristics of shunt capacitor for different four reactive power injections follows
System and shunt capacitors steady state Q-V characteristics, capacitors MVAr shown at rated voltage
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The following slides simulate a voltage collapse in a simple power system. The West generator has unlimited VAR (or reactive power) supply capability so it is able to keep the voltage at its bus constant at 1.0 per unit (or at the rated voltage). The East generator can only supply up to 1,200 MVARs (or 1,200 million VARs). There are 6,000 MWs of real power load and 1,000 MVARs of reactive power load at each bus. The West generator is transferring 3,000 MW to the East to help serve the 6,000 MW load in the East. Therefore, the outputs of the West and East generators are 9,000 MW and 3,000 MW respectively.
Six identical lines are initially in service and the 3,000 MWs of real power transfer are divided equally across the lines. The generators in the West and East are supplying reactive power (or VARs) to their local loads plus VARs to the transmission lines to support the transfer. The lines are assumed to be lossless (that is, they do not absorb real power). We have assumed that the individual line capacities (or thermal ratings) exceed 3,000 MW so the real power transfer could occur on one line if maintaining voltage (through sufficient VAR supply) is not a problem. Circuit breakers can open (or trip) the lines.
Buses: heavy dark lines (East and West) where the generators, loads and transmission lines interconnect
Transmission lines: lines connecting the two buses Generators: circles with dog bone rotors Loads: arrows connected to the buses Circuit breakers: red boxes Line flows: arrows on the transmission lines (more easily seen in the last three simulations that follow) indicate the direction and magnitude of power flow
East
Voltage has dropped to 97% of rated voltage (957 MVARs required by lines).
Voltage Collapse
West
East
This simulation could not solve the case of 3,000 MW transfer with five lines out. Numbers shown are from the models last attempt to solve. The West generators unlimited supply of VARs is still not sufficient to maintain the voltage at the East bus.
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2.
Due to a fault or any other reason a heavily loaded line is lost. The loading and reactive power losses of remaining lines increase. The total reactive power demand increases due to these reasons.
3. The load voltage decreases, which in turn decreases the load demand and the loading of EHV transmission lines. The voltage control of the system, however, quickly restores generator terminal voltages by increasing excitation. The additional reactive power flow at the transformers and transmission lines causes additional voltage drop at these components. 4. After a few minutes (depending on the time delays of on-load tap changers) the on-load tap changers of distribution substation transformers restore the distribution network voltages. The increased voltage also increases the load demand. The EHV transmission line losses increase, which causes greater voltage drop at these lines.
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France 1978 Belgium 1982 Florida USA 1985 Western France 1987 Southern Finland August 1992 WSCC USA July 2 1996