Plate Tectonics

The Slowly Changing Crust

A Crash Course in Seismic Waves

Why?

Studying them produced the model of the Earths interior that seems to best fit multiple geologic phenomena P-waves

What?

P = primary, because these are the fastest moving, and first to arrive after a quake Compressional waves that are able to move through both solids and liquids S = secondary; slightly slower than P-waves Only able to move through solids

S-waves

Surface waves

Well discuss these when we get to earthquakes

The Earths Interior

Structure

Lithosphere: Crust and upper mantle solid and rigid Asthenosphere: lower mantle semi-solid, semi-fluid

Boundary between them is known as the Mohorovoi Discontinuity, or Moho Discovered by studying changed in velocities of seismic waves

Outer Core: molten iron and nickel Inner Core: solid iron and nickel

S-waves cant travel through liquid; absence of S-waves on other side of the world after earthquakes lead to idea of a molten interior Different parts to the core helps explain the presence of Earths magnetic field, as well

The Earths Interior

Structure

Lithosphere: Crust and upper mantle solid and rigid Asthenosphere: lower mantle semi-solid, semi-fluid

Boundary between them is known as the Mohorovoi Discontinuity, or Moho Discovered by studying changed in velocities of seismic waves

Outer Core: molten iron and nickel Inner Core: solid iron and nickel

S-waves cant travel through liquid; absence of S-waves on other side of the world after earthquakes lead to idea of a molten interior Different parts to the core helps explain the presence of Earths magnetic field, as well

Alfred Wegener
Theory of Continental Drift:
The continents were once together as one giant landmass called Pangaea, and have slowly been drifting apart throughout time.

Alfred Wegener

Wegeners Influences

James Hutton Geologic Time

Credited with determining that the age of the Earth was millions of years, rather than the thousands of years that was widely believed at the time.

Charles Lyell

Law of Uniformitarianism: the processes that affect the Earth now are the same processes that have affected the Earth throughout time.

Wegeners Evidence

Shape of the continents

He noticed that Africa and South America seemed to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle, as well as other continents Wegener wasnt the first to notice this, but he was the first to support his ideas of moving continents with evidence

Wegeners Evidence

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Types of Rocks

Rock layers and rock formations on different coastlines matched in thickness, rock type, and age. Wegener also found glacial till deposits and striations on the bedrock in Africa and South America, suggesting glacial activity on continents currently in hot climates.

Geologic Evidence Glacial Deposits

Wegeners Evidence

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence

Rock layers and rock formations on different coastlines matched in thickness, rock type, and age. Wegener also found glacial till deposits and striations on the bedrock in Africa and South America, suggesting glacial activity on continents currently in hot climates.

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Coal Deposits

Wegener pointed out that coal deposits in Eastern Europe, North America, and Northern Asia could have only formed in warm, humid climates, rather than in the cool climate areas they are found today.

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Coal Deposits

Wegener pointed out that coal deposits in Eastern Europe, North America, and Northern Asia could have only formed in warm, humid climates, rather than in the cool climate areas they are found today.

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Fossils

Wegener found fossils of non-swimming organisms on separate continents Fossils came from a specific time period, when there was no evidence of land bridges between continents

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Fossils

Wegener found fossils of non-swimming organisms on separate continents Fossils came from a specific time period, when there was no evidence of land bridges between continents

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Broken Mountain Chains

On different continents there are the geologic remains of ancient mountain ranges that have been weathered down. The rock composition and age would suggest that they used to be part of the same range.

Wegeners Evidence

Geologic Evidence Broken Mountain Chains

On different continents there are the geologic remains of ancient mountain ranges that have been weathered down. The rock composition and age would suggest that they used to be part of the same range.

Wegeners Critics

Didnt think the theory could possibly be true because:

1. Nobody could see or feel the continents moving!
2. They couldnt think of any force that could possibly be strong enough to move huge masses of rock like continents.

Wegener died in Greenland on an expedition trying to prove his theory.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

What is it?

Theory proposed by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz (separately), stating that the ocean floor was splitting apart at mid-ocean ridges and new rock was forming there

Why was this theory more believable in the 60s than Wegeners theory in the 20s?

Technology was good enough to collect evidence from the sea floor.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Evidence

Age of Rocks
Samples

of rocks taken from different areas of the ocean floor showed that rocks closest to the midocean ridges are the youngest, and as you move further away from the ridge, the rocks get older

Paleomagnetism

Ancient magnetic reversals are mirrored on either side of the mid-ocean ridges

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Evidence

Age of Rocks
Samples

of rocks taken from different areas of the ocean floor showed that rocks closest to the midocean ridges are the youngest, and as you move further away from the ridge, the rocks get older

Paleomagnetism

Ancient magnetic reversals are mirrored on either side of the mid-ocean ridges

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Lithosphere

The LITHOSPHERE (crust and upper mantle) is broken into several pieces which slide around on top of the ASTHENOSPHERE (semi-solid lower mantle)

Types of plates

Continental made up mostly of silicate minerals = low density and thick layers Oceanic made up mostly of basalt = very dense rock and thin layers

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Lithosphere

The LITHOSPHERE (crust and upper mantle) is broken into several pieces which slide around on top of the ASTHENOSPHERE (semi-solid lower mantle)

Types of plates

Continental made up mostly of silicate minerals = low density and thick layers Oceanic made up mostly of basalt = very dense rock and thin layers

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Interactions of Plates (collisions, more specifically)

Continental-Oceanic

Since the oceanic plate is made of basalt and is more dense, it sinks beneath the continental plate (SUBDUCTION)

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Interactions of Plates (collisions, more specifically)

Continental-Continental

Since they are relatively the same density, neither sinks immediately; instead, they both crumple until one eventually subducts

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Interactions of Plates (collisions, more specifically)

Oceanic-Oceanic

Similar to two continents colliding, except since these are more dense, subduction happens more easily than with continentals

Basics of Plate Tectonics

Total Amount of Crust

Is relatively constant; for any crust that gets destroyed during subduction, new crust is created at mid-ocean ridges.

Rate of Movement

Couple inches per year about how fast your fingernails grow.

Cause of Plate Tectonics

CONVECTION

When a fluid (such as the asthenosphere) is heated, it becomes less dense, and rises When it cools, it sinks because it becomes more dense again This creates currents in the asthenosphere, which push the plates around

Cause of Plate Tectonics

CONVECTION

When a fluid (such as the asthenosphere) is heated, it becomes less dense, and rises When it cools, it sinks because it becomes more dense again This creates currents in the asthenosphere, which push the plates around

Types of Plate Boundaries

DIVERGENT

Means moving apart Creates TENSIONAL stress on the crust RIFT VALLEY gap left between two parts of a diverging continental plate MID-OCEAN RIDGES undersea mountain ranges created where oceanic plates diverge

Types of Plate Boundaries

Rift Valley

Mid-ocean Ridge

Types of Plate Boundaries

CONVERGENT

Means coming together Creates COMPRESSIONAL stress on crust Several features are associated w/ these boundaries:
Depressions left in the sea floor where one plate sinks beneath another VOLCANOES As one plate sinks beneath another, it melts, and the magma rises to the surface, creating volcanoes
TRENCHES

Locations of Major Volcanic Eruptions

Types of Plate Boundaries

CONVERGENT

Features of convergent boundaries (cont.)

EARTHQUAKES

When one plate slides beneath another, they snag on each other then break apart again, causing earthquakes

These quakes help show where plate boundaries are The depth of the quakes shows what kind of boundary it is

Earthquake epicenter locations

Types of Plate Boundaries

CONVERGENT

Features of convergent boundaries (cont.)

MOUNTAINS When continents converge, the crust buckles before one piece subducts. The buckling and folding creates mountains like the Himalayas and Rockies. ISLAND ARCS When two oceanic plates converge and one subducts, the resulting volcanoes build up above sea level to become an island chain known as an arc
FOLDED

Types of Plate Boundaries

TRANSFORM BOUNDARY

Plates move laterally, or slide sideways past each other Crust is neither created nor destroyed here, just deformed As the plates slide past each other, they lock up and build SHEARING stress often which is released in the form of shallow earthquakes

Widespread Acceptance

By combining continental drift and seafloor spreading, the theory of plate tectonics has provided a reasonable and useful explanation for how the different geologic features weve discussed came to be. We can actually observe plate movements now with GIS sensors on separate plates, measuring distances and speeds of plates.