DYNAMICS AND VIBRATION

Random vibration
Sumeet Ghodke Reg. No. 122090005 M. Tech (Machine Design)

EXAMPLES OF RANDOM VIBRATION

turbulent flow of gases or liquids passage of vehicles over rough surfaces rough seas acting on ships and marine structures Earthquakes Turbulence during aeroplane flight

So far, we have looked at the response of systems to deterministic inputs consisting of known functions of time, and there is, potentially at least, an exact answer, provided we have all the data. If the input is a random function of time, and has been recorded, then this approach is still possible, but the calculation would have to be stepwise, very lengthy, and the response would be specific to that particular input. However, if the average properties of the input do not change too much with time, much easier methods can be used. These require the introduction of new ways of describing the average properties of time histories. Therefore, we first introduce two new concepts: amplitude probability and the power spectrum.

STATIONARITY, ERGODICITY

Mathematically, the conventional analysis of random waveforms requires them to be stationary and ergodic. Stationarity applies to a single waveform, and implies that its average properties are constant with time. Ergodicity applies to a group of a large number of nominally similar waveforms, recorded in similar conditions.

AMPLITUDE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Figure shows a random waveform, x(t), from which a sample of length, T, has been selected for analysis. A small part of the waveform is shown enlarged. The probability, that the waveform has a value less than x, a particular value of x, is given by counting up the total time that it spends below x, which will be the sum of periods such as t1, t2, t3, . . . expressed as a fraction of the total time T, thus, If this is repeated with x set to a number of different values of x, a plot of P(x) versus x can be obtained. P(x) is known as the cumulative amplitude probability distribution.

THE GAUSSIAN OR NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The majority of probability distributions occurring naturally are of normal form, the shape of the probability density curve being the wellknown bell shape. The fact that this curve occurs almost universally in natural phenomena, can be explained by the central limit theorem, which states that if a random time history is made up from the sum of a large number of small, unrelated components, then it will tend to have a Gaussian amplitude distribution. This tendency can be demonstrated in a simple way by example described.

THE POWER SPECTRUM

If we wish to predict or measure the response of systems to random inputs, we must know how the power is spread over the frequency range, and this information is conveniently represented by the power spectrum. Strictly, the rigorous derivation of the power spectrum is as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function, which is double-sided, i.e. it extends to negative frequencies. For most practical work, a single-sided definition of the power spectrum, is adequate.

THE POWER SPECTRUM OF A RANDOM WAVEFORM

To find the frequency content of a random waveform, we use the method as we do for the periodic waveform, by assuming that the sample analysed is one period of a very long periodic function. With this assumption, the Fourier coefficients, an and bn, as defined by Eq. can be found, typically by the use of the DFT (discrete Fourier transform), and will lie at the discrete frequencies 1/T, 2/T, 3/T, . . . , corresponding to n=1, 2, 3, . . . .

FIGURE ILLUSTRATES THE

The random time history x(t) is shown at (a), and a portion of length T seconds has been selected for analysis. This is now regarded as one period of a periodic waveform, and its Fourier coefficients, an and bn, are shown at (b)(i) and (b)(ii), respectively. Individually, these are random, but this is largely due to phase, and if phase is eliminated by calculating the mean square value, in each pair of coefficients, at each frequency, the result shown at (c) is obtained. This is the discrete power spectrum of the original time history. The length of each line represents the power in the Fourier components at that particular frequency, f(n).

DERIVATION OF A POWER SPECTRUM

POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY

Power spectra are sometimes left in discrete form, and it is usually the appropriate format for periodic data but in the case of random data, the assumed period, T, is usually much longer, and the spacing of the spectral lines, is much closer. It is then usual to express the power as a continuous power spectral density (PSD) curve. The PSD, S(f(n)), at any discrete frequency, f(n), is given by dividing the power at that frequency by the bandwidth over which it is considered to be distributed, say f. This can be assumed to be equal to the interval between adjacent Fourier components, which is 1/T Hz. Thus df= 1/T, and

RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM TO A SINGLE

RANDOM INPUT
Many practical problems involving the response of a system to random excitation can be solved by considering a single random input function. The process is relatively straightforward, requiring only two ingredients: (1) the power spectrum of the input and (2) the frequency response function (FRF) of the system. We have discussed the power spectrum, and its derivation; now we will review the FRF.

THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTION

The FRF, is simply the ratio of the steady-state response of a system to an applied sinusoidal input, which can be a force, an imposed displacement, or almost any other quantity. When calculating an FRF, the sinusoidal input is considered to have started at 1, and any transient response to have died away. The response is therefore also sinusoidal, but generally different in magnitude and phase from the input. Note: When Laplace operator, s, in a system transfer function, is replaced by i, the transfer function becomes the FRF, [H()], in complex notation.

RESPONSE POWER SPECTRUM IN TERMS OF THE INPUT POWER SPECTRUM

Let the time history, x(t), of length T, of the input to a system, be represented by the Fourier series:

The frequency interval, f, between adjacent Fourier components is 1/T. The power in a single component, at frequency f(n), is , and the corresponding PSD is
..1

If we let the response or output time history of the system be y(t), then it can be represented by a Fourier series in the same way as Eq.(1), except that both the coefficients an and bn will be multiplied by the modulus of the FRF of the system, |Hf(n)|, at each component frequency f(n). The phase of each component will also be shifted by n, the phase angle of the FRF at frequency f(n). If we are only interested in the power in the output, however, the phase shift has no effect, and it is easily shown that the output power at frequency f(n) is , and the corresponding PSD is
..2

Thus from Eqs (1) and (2):

In the limit, as the frequency intervals become infinitesimal, and the discrete frequencies, f(n), merge to become the continuous frequency, f, we have one of the most useful results in practical random vibration analysis:

where Sx(f) is the power spectral density of the input; Sy(f) the power spectral density of the output or response and |H(f)| the modulus of the steady-state frequency response function relating input and output.

REFERENCE:

Structural Dynamics and Vibration in Practice, An Engineering Handbook-Douglas Thorby

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