Digestive System

Two groups of organs

1. Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract)
Mouth to anus Digests food and absorbs fragments Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

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Digestive System 2. Accessory digestive organs

Teeth, tongue, gallbladder Digestive glands
Salivary glands Liver Pancreas

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Figure 23.1 Alimentary canal and related accessory digestive organs.

Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue*

Parotid gland Sublingual gland Submandibular gland

Salivary glands*

Esophagus

Pharynx Stomach Pancreas* (Spleen)

Liver* Gallbladder*

Transverse colon

Small intestine

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Descending colon Ascending colon Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anal canal Large intestine

Anus
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Digestive Processes Six essential activities

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ingestion Propulsion Mechanical breakdown Digestion Absorption Defecation

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Figure 23.2 Gastrointestinal tract activities.

Ingestion
Mechanical breakdown Chewing (mouth) Churning (stomach) Segmentation (small intestine) Digestion Food Pharynx Esophagus Propulsion Swallowing (oropharynx) Peristalsis (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) Stomach Absorption Lymph vessel Small intestine Large intestine Mainly H2O Feces Defecation
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Blood vessel

Anus

Figure 23.3 Peristalsis and segmentation.

From mouth

Peristalsis: Adjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food along the tract distally.

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Segmentation: Nonadjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food forward then backward. Food mixing and slow food propulsion occur.

Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity Peritoneum - serous membrane of abdominal cavity

Visceral peritoneum on external surface of most digestive organs Parietal peritoneum lines body wall

Peritoneal cavity
Between two peritoneums Fluid lubricates mobile organs

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Figure 23.5a The peritoneum and the peritoneal cavity.

Abdominopelvic cavity Vertebra

Dorsal mesentery

Parietal peritoneum

Visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity

Ventral mesentery

Alimentary Liver canal organ

Two schematic cross sections of abdominal cavity illustrate the peritoneums and mesenteries.
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Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity Mesentery - double layer of peritoneum

Routes for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves Holds organs in place; stores fat

Retroperitoneal organs posterior to peritoneum Intraperitoneal (peritoneal) organs surrounded by peritoneum

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Figure 23.5b The peritoneum and the peritoneal cavity.

Mesentery resorbed and lost

Alimentary canal organ

Alimentary canal organ in a retroperitoneal position

Some organs lose their mesentery and move, becoming retroperitoneal, during development.
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Blood Supply: Splanchnic Circulation Branches of aorta serving digestive organs

Hepatic, splenic, and left gastric arteries Inferior and superior mesenteric arteries

Hepatic portal circulation

Drains nutrient-rich blood from digestive organs Delivers it to the liver for processing

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Histology of the Alimentary Canal Four basic layers (tunics)

Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa

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Figure 23.6 Basic structure of the alimentary canal.

Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Glands in submucosa Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Muscularis externa Longitudinal muscle Circular muscle Serosa Epithelium (mesothelium) Connective tissue Lumen Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

Mesentery

Nerve Artery Gland in mucosa Vein Duct of gland outside Lymphatic vessel alimentary canal

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Mucosa Lines lumen Functions different layers perform 1 or all 3

Secretes mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones Absorbs end products of digestion Protects against infectious disease

Three sublayers: epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae

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Mucosa Epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium and mucussecreting cells (most of tract)
Mucus
Protects digestive organs from enzymes Eases food passage

May secrete enzymes and hormones (e.g., in stomach and small intestine)

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Mucosa Lamina propria

Loose areolar connective tissue Capillaries for nourishment and absorption Lymphoid follicles (part of MALT)
Defend against microorganisms

Muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle local movements of mucosa

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Submucosa Submucosa
Areolar connective tissue Blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and submucosal nerve plexus

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Muscularis Externa Muscularis externa

Responsible for segmentation and peristalsis Inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
Circular layer thickens in some areas sphincters Myenteric nerve plexus between two muscle layers

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Serosa Visceral peritoneum

Areolar connective tissue covered with mesothelium in most organs Replaced by fibrous adventitia in esophagus Retroperitoneal organs have both an adventitia and serosa

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Figure 23.6 Basic structure of the alimentary canal.

Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Glands in submucosa Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Muscularis externa Longitudinal muscle Circular muscle Serosa Epithelium (mesothelium) Connective tissue Lumen Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

Mesentery

Nerve Artery Gland in mucosa Vein Duct of gland outside Lymphatic vessel alimentary canal

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Enteric Nervous System Intrinsic nerve supply of alimentary canal enteric neurons (more than spinal cord) Major nerve supply to GI tract wall; control motility
Submucosal nerve plexus
Regulates glands and smooth muscle in the mucosa

Myenteric nerve plexus

Controls GI tract motility

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Enteric Nervous System Linked to CNS via afferent visceral fibers Long ANS fibers synapse with enteric plexuses
Sympathetic impulses inhibit digestive activities Parasympathetic impulses stimulate digestive activities

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Functional Anatomy: Mouth Oral (buccal) cavity

Bounded by lips, cheeks, palate, and tongue Oral orifice is anterior opening Lined with stratified squamous epithelium

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Figure 23.7a Anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth).

Soft palate Palatoglossal arch

Uvula

Hard palate Oral cavity Palatine tonsil Tongue Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Hyoid bone Laryngopharynx

Esophagus

Trachea
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Sagittal section of the oral cavity and pharynx

Lips and Cheeks Contain orbicularis oris and buccinator muscles Oral vestibule - recess internal to lips (labia) and cheeks, external to teeth and gums Oral cavity proper lies within teeth and gums Labial frenulum - median attachment of each lip to gum
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Figure 23.7b Anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth).

Upper lip Gingivae (gums) Palatine raphe Hard palate Soft palate Uvula Palatine tonsil Superior labial frenulum Palatoglossal arch Palatopharyngeal arch Posterior wall of oropharynx

Tongue
Sublingual fold with openings of sublingual ducts Oral vestibule Lower lip Inferior labial frenulum Lingual frenulum Opening of Submandibular duct Gingivae (gums)

Anterior view
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Palate Hard palate - palatine bones and palatine processes of maxillae

Slightly corrugated to help create friction against tongue

Soft palate - fold formed mostly of skeletal muscle

Closes off nasopharynx during swallowing Uvula projects downward from its free edge

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Tongue Skeletal muscle Functions include

Repositioning and mixing food during chewing Formation of bolus Initiation of swallowing, speech, and taste

Intrinsic muscles change shape of tongue Extrinsic muscles alter tongue's position Lingual frenulum: attachment to floor of mouth
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Tongue Surface bears papillae

Filiformwhitish, give the tongue roughness and provide friction; do not contain taste buds Fungiformreddish, scattered over tongue; contain taste buds Vallate (circumvallate)V-shaped row in back of tongue; contain taste buds Foliateon lateral aspects of posterior tongue; contain taste buds that function primarily in infants and children
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Tongue Lingual lipase

Secreted by serous cells beneath foliate and vallate papillae secrete Fat-digesting enzyme functional in stomach

Terminal sulcus marks division between

Body - anterior 2/3 residing in oral cavity Root - posterior third residing in oropharynx Just posterior to vallate papillae

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Figure 23.8 Dorsal surface of the tongue, and the tonsils.

Epiglottis Palatopharyngeal arch Palatine tonsil

Lingual tonsil
Palatoglossal arch Terminal sulcus Foliate papillae Vallate papilla Medial sulcus of the tongue Dorsum of tongue

Fungiform papilla
Filiform papilla
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Salivary Glands Major salivary glands

Produce most saliva; lie outside oral cavity Parotid Submandibular Sublingual

Minor salivary glands

Scattered throughout oral cavity; augment slightly

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Salivary Glands Function of saliva

Cleanses mouth Dissolves food chemicals for taste Moistens food; compacts into bolus Begins breakdown of starch with enzymes

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Salivary Glands Parotid gland

Anterior to ear; external to masseter muscle Parotid duct opens into oral vestibule next to second upper molar Mumps is inflammation of parotid glands

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Salivary Glands Submandibular gland

Medial to body of mandible Duct opens at base of lingual frenulum

Sublingual gland
Anterior to submandibular gland under tongue Opens via 1012 ducts into floor of mouth

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Figure 23.9 The salivary glands.

Tongue Teeth Ducts of sublingual gland Frenulum of tongue Sublingual gland Mylohyoid muscle (cut) Anterior belly of digastric muscle

Parotid gland
Parotid duct Masseter muscle Body of mandible (cut) Posterior belly of digastric muscle Submandibular duct Submandibular gland Mucous cells Serous cells forming demilunes

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Salivary Glands Two types of secretory cells

Serous cells
Watery, enzymes, ions, bit of mucin

Mucous cells
Mucus

Parotid, submandibular glands mostly serous; sublingual mostly mucous

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Composition of Saliva 9799.5% water, slightly acidic

ElectrolytesNa+, K+, Cl, PO4 2, HCO3 Salivary amylase and lingual lipase Mucin Metabolic wastesurea and uric acid Lysozyme, IgA, defensins, and a cyanide compound protect against microorganisms

PLAY

Animation: Rotating head

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Control of Salivation
1500 ml/day Intrinsic glands continuously keep mouth moist Major salivary glands activated by parasympathetic nervous system when
Ingested food stimulates chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in mouth Salivatory nuclei in brain stem send impulses along parasympathetic fibers in cranial nerves VII and IX

Strong sympathetic stimulation inhibits salivation and results in dry mouth (xerostomia)

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Pharynx Food passes from mouth oropharynx laryngopharynx

Allows passage of food, fluids, and air Stratified squamous epithelium lining; mucusproducing glands Skeletal muscle layers: inner longitudinal, outer pharyngeal constrictors

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Esophagus Flat muscular tube from laryngopharynx to stomach Pierces diaphragm at esophageal hiatus Joins stomach at cardial orifice Gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter
Surrounds cardial orifice

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Homeostatic Imbalance Heartburn

Stomach acid regurgitates into esophagus Likely with excess food/drink, extreme obesity, pregnancy, running Also with hiatal hernia - structural abnormality
Part of stomach above diaphragm Can esophagitis, esophageal ulcers, esophageal cancer

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Esophagus Esophageal mucosa contains stratified squamous epithelium

Changes to simple columnar at stomach

Esophageal glands in submucosa secrete mucus to aid in bolus movement Muscularis externa - skeletal superiorly; mixed in middle; smooth inferiorly Adventitia instead of serosa

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Figure 23.12a Microscopic structure of the esophagus.

Mucosa (stratified squamous epithelium) Submucosa (areolar connective tissue) Lumen Muscularis externa Circular layer Longitudinal layer Adventitia (fibrous connective tissue)
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Figure 23.12b Microscopic structure of the esophagus.

Mucosa (stratified squamous epithelium)

Esophagus-stomach junction

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Simple columnar epithelium of stomach

Digestive Processes: Mouth Ingestion Mechanical breakdown

Chewing

Propulsion
Deglutition (swallowing)

Digestion (salivary amylase and lingual lipase) ~ No absorption, except for few drugs

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Mastication Cheeks and closed lips hold food between teeth Tongue mixes food with saliva; compacts food into bolus Teeth cut and grind Partly voluntary Partly reflexive
Stretch reflexes; pressure receptors in cheeks, gums, tongue
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Deglutition Involves tongue, soft palate, pharynx, esophagus Requires coordination of 22 muscle groups Buccal phase
Voluntary contraction of tongue

Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
Involuntary primarily vagus nerve Control center in the medulla and lower pons
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Figure 23.13 Deglutition (swallowing).

Bolus of food

Slide 1

Tongue Uvula Pharynx Epiglottis Glottis Trachea Esophagus 1 During the buccal phase, the upper esophageal sphincter is contracted. The tongue presses against the hard palate, forcing the food bolus into the oropharynx. 2 The pharyngeal-esophageal phase begins as the uvula and larynx rise to prevent food from entering respiratory passageways. The tongue blocks off the mouth. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing food to enter the esophagus. Upper esophageal sphincter Bolus Epiglottis

Bolus

3 The constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiorly. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts (closes) after food enters.

Relaxed muscles

Circular muscles contract

Bolus of food Longitudinal muscles contract

4 Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach.

Relaxed muscles

5 The gastroesophageal sphincter surrounding the cardial oriface opens, and food enters the stomach.

Circular muscles contract

Gastroesophageal sphincter closed

Gastroesophageal sphincter opens Stomach

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Stomach: Gross Anatomy In upper left quadrant; temporary storage; digestion of bolus to chyme Cardial part (cardia)
Surrounds cardial orifice

Fundus
Dome-shaped region beneath diaphragm

Body
Midportion

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Stomach: Gross Anatomy Pyloric part

Antrum (superior portion) pyloric canal pylorus Pylorus continuous with duodenum through pyloric valve (sphincter controlling stomach emptying)

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Figure 23.14a Anatomy of the stomach.

Cardia Fundus

Esophagus Muscularis externa Longitudinal layer Circular layer Oblique layer Serosa

Body

Lumen
Lesser curvature Rugae of mucosa

Greater curvature

Duodenum
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Pyloric sphincter (valve) at pylorus

Pyloric canal

Pyloric antrum

Figure 23.14b Anatomy of the stomach.

Liver (cut)

Fundus Body Spleen

Lesser curvature

Greater curvature

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Stomach: Gross Anatomy Greater curvature - convex lateral surface Lesser curvature - concave medial surface Mesenteries tether stomach
Lesser omentum
From liver to lesser curvature

Greater omentum contains fat deposits & lymph nodes

Greater curvature over small intestine spleen & transverse colon mesocolon
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Figure 23.30a Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.

Falciform ligament Liver Gallbladder Spleen Stomach Ligamentum teres

Greater omentum
Small intestine

Cecum

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Figure 23.30b Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.

Liver Gallbladder Lesser omentum Stomach Duodenum Transverse colon Small intestine

Cecum Urinary bladder

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Figure 23.30c Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.

Greater omentum
Transverse colon

Transverse mesocolon
Descending colon Jejunum Mesentery Sigmoid mesocolon Sigmoid colon Ileum

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Stomach: Gross Anatomy ANS nerve supply

Sympathetic from thoracic splanchnic nerves via celiac plexus Parasympathetic via vagus nerve

Blood supply
Celiac trunk (gastric and splenic branches) Veins of hepatic portal system

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Stomach: Microscopic Anatomy Four tunics Muscularis and mucosa modified

Muscularis externa
Three layers of smooth muscle Inner oblique layer allows stomach to churn, mix, move, and physically break down food

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Figure 23.15a Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.

Surface epithelium Mucosa

Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae

Submucosa (contains submucosal Oblique plexus) layer Muscularis Circular externa layer (contains Longitudinal myenteric layer plexus) Stomach wall Serosa Layers of the stomach wall
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Stomach: Microscopic Anatomy Mucosa

Simple columnar epithelium composed of mucous cells
Secrete two-layer coat of alkaline mucus
Surface layer traps bicarbonate-rich fluid beneath it

Dotted with gastric pits gastric glands

Gastric glands produce gastric juice

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Figure 23.15b Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.

Gastric pits

Surface epithelium (mucous cells)

Gastric pit

Mucous neck cells Parietal cell

Gastric gland

Chief cell

Enteroendocrine cell Enlarged view of gastric pits and gastric glands

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Gastric Glands Cell types

Mucous neck cells (secrete thin, acidic mucus of unknown function) Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cells

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Figure 23.15c Microscopic anatomy of the stomach.

Pepsinogen

Pepsin

HCI

Mitochondria Parietal cell

Chief cell

Enteroendocrine cell Location of the HCl-producing parietal cells and pepsin-secreting chief cells in a gastric gland

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Gastric Gland Secretions Glands in fundus and body produce most gastric juice Parietal cell secretions
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
pH 1.53.5 denatures protein, activates pepsin, breaks down plant cell walls, kills many bacteria

Intrinsic factor
Glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B12 in small intestine

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Gastric Gland Secretions Chief cell secretions

Pepsinogen - inactive enzyme
Activated to pepsin by HCl and by pepsin itself (a positive feedback mechanism)

Lipases
Digest ~15% of lipids

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Gastric Gland Secretions Enteroendocrine cells

Secrete chemical messengers into lamina propria
Act as paracrines
Serotonin and histamine

Hormones
Somatostatin (also acts as paracrine) and gastrin

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Mucosal Barrier Harsh digestive conditions in stomach Has mucosal barrier to protect
Thick layer of bicarbonate-rich mucus Tight junctions between epithelial cells
Prevent juice seeping underneath tissue

Damaged epithelial cells quickly replaced by division of stem cells

Surface cells replaced every 36 days

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Digestive Processes in the Stomach Mechanical breakdown Denaturation of proteins by HCl Enzymatic digestion of proteins by pepsin (and milk protein by rennin in infants) Delivers chyme to small intestine

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Digestive Processes in the Stomach Lipid-soluble alcohol and aspirin absorbed into blood Only stomach function essential to life
Secretes intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption
B12 needed mature red blood cells Lack of intrinsic factor causes pernicious anemia Treated with B12 injections

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Response of the Stomach to Filling Stretches to accommodate incoming food

Pressure constant until 1.5 L food ingested
Reflex-mediated receptive relaxation
Coordinated by swallowing center of brain stem

Gastric accommodation
Plasticity (stress-relaxation response) of smooth muscle (see Chapter 9)

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Small Intestine: Gross Anatomy Major organ of digestion and absorption 2-4 m long; from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve Subdivisions
Duodenum (retroperitoneal) Jejunum (attached posteriorly by mesentery) Ileum (attached posteriorly by mesentery)

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Figure 23.1 Alimentary canal and related accessory digestive organs.

Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue*

Parotid gland Sublingual gland Submandibular gland

Salivary glands*

Esophagus

Pharynx Stomach Pancreas* (Spleen)

Liver* Gallbladder*

Transverse colon

Small intestine

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Descending colon Ascending colon Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anal canal Large intestine

Anus
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Duodenum Curves around head of pancreas; shortest part 25 cm Bile duct (from liver) and main pancreatic duct (from pancreas)
Join at hepatopancreatic ampulla Enter duodenum at major duodenal papilla Entry controlled by hepatopancreatic sphincter

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Figure 23.21 The duodenum of the small intestine, and related organs.

Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct

Mucosa with folds Gallbladder Major duodenal papilla Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter
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Tail of pancreas Pancreas Jejunum

Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Duodenum Head of pancreas

Jejunum and Ileum Jejunum

Extends from duodenum to ileum About 2.5 m long

Ileum
Joins large intestine at ileocecal valve About 3.6 m long

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Gross Anatomy of Small Intestine Vagus nerve (parasympathetic) and sympathetics from thoracic splanchnic nerves serve small intestine Superior mesenteric artery brings blood supply Veins (carrying nutrient-rich blood) drain into superior mesenteric veins hepatic portal vein liver

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Structural Modifications Increase surface area of proximal part for nutrient absorption
Circular folds (plicae circulares) Villi Microvilli

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Structural Modifications Circular folds

Permanent folds (~1 cm deep) that force chyme to slowly spiral through lumen more nutrient absorption

Villi
Extensions (~1 mm high) of mucosa with capillary bed and lacteal for absorption Microvilli (brush border) contain

enzymes for carbohydrate and protein digestion

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Figure 23.22a Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption.

Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel

Muscle layers Circular folds

Lumen

Villi

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Figure 23.22b Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption.

Microvilli (brush border)

Absorptive cells Lacteal Villus

Goblet cell Blood capillaries Mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Muscularis mucosae
Duodenal gland
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Enteroendocrine cells Venule Lymphatic vessel Submucosa

Figure 23.22c Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption. Absorptive cells

Goblet cells Villi

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Intestinal crypt

Figure 23.23 Microvilli of the small intestine.

Mucus granules

Microvilli forming the brush border

Absorptive cell
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Intestinal Crypts Intestinal crypt epithelium renewed every 2-4 days

Most - secretory cells that produce intestinal juice Enteroendocrine cells enterogastrones Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs)
Release cytokines that kill infected cells

Paneth cells
Secrete antimicrobial agents (defensins and lysozyme)

Stem cells divide to produce crypt cells

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Mucosa Peyer's patches protect especially distal part against bacteria

May protrude into submucosa

B lymphocytes leave intestine, enter blood, protect intestinal lamina propria with their IgA Duodenal (Brunner's) glands of the duodenum secrete alkaline mucus to neutralize acidic chyme
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Intestinal Juice 1-2 L secreted daily in response to distension or irritation of mucosa Slightly alkaline; isotonic with blood plasma Largely water; enzyme-poor (enzymes of small intestine only in brush border); contains mucus Facilitates transport and absorption of nutrients
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The Liver and Gallbladder Accessory organs Liver

Many functions; only digestive function bile production
Bile fat emulsifier

Gallbladder
Chief function bile storage

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Liver Largest gland in body Four lobesright, left, caudate, and quadrate

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Liver Falciform ligament

Separates larger right and smaller left lobes Suspends liver from diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall

Round ligament (ligamentum teres)

Remnant of fetal umbilical vein along free edge of falciform ligament

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Figure 23.24a Gross anatomy of the human liver.

Sternum Nipple Liver

Bare area

Falciform ligament Left lobe of liver Right lobe of liver

Gallbladder

Round ligament (ligamentum teres)

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Figure 23.24b Gross anatomy of the human liver.

Lesser omentum (in fissure) Left lobe of liver Porta hepatis containing hepatic artery (left) and hepatic portal vein (right) Quadrate lobe of liver Ligamentum teres

Bare area

Caudate lobe of liver

Sulcus for inferior vena cava

Hepatic vein (cut) Bile duct (cut) Right lobe of liver Gallbladder

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Liver: Associated Structures Lesser omentum anchors liver to stomach Hepatic artery and vein enter at porta hepatis Bile ducts
Common hepatic duct leaves liver Cystic duct connects to gallbladder Bile duct formed by union of common hepatic and cystic ducts

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Figure 23.21 The duodenum of the small intestine, and related organs.

Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct

Mucosa with folds Gallbladder Major duodenal papilla Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter
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Tail of pancreas Pancreas Jejunum

Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Duodenum Head of pancreas

Liver: Microscopic Anatomy Liver lobules

Hexagonal structural and functional units Composed of plates of hepatocytes (liver cells)
Filter and process nutrient-rich blood

Central vein in longitudinal axis

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Figure 23.25ab Microscopic anatomy of the liver.

Lobule

Central Connective vein tissue septum

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Liver: Microscopic Anatomy

Portal triad at each corner of lobule
Branch of hepatic artery supplies oxygen Branch of hepatic portal vein brings nutrient-rich blood Bile duct receives bile from bile canaliculi

Liver sinusoids - leaky capillaries between hepatic plates

Stellate macrophages (hepatic macrophages or Kupffer cells) in liver

sinusoids remove debris & old RBCs
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Figure 23.25c Microscopic anatomy of the liver.

Interlobular veins (to hepatic vein) Central vein

Sinusoids Plates of hepatocytes Bile canaliculi

Bile duct (receives bile from bile canaliculi) Fenestrated lining (endothelial cells) of sinusoids

Stellate macrophages in sinusoid walls Portal vein

Bile duct Portal venule Portal arteriole

Portal triad

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Liver: Microscopic Anatomy Hepatocytes increased rough & smooth ER, Golgi, peroxisomes, mitochondria Hepatocyte functions
Process bloodborne nutrients Store fat-soluble vitamins Perform detoxification Produce ~900 ml bile per day

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Liver Regenerative capacity

Restores full size in 6-12 months after 80% removal Injury hepatocytes growth factors endothelial cell proliferation

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Bile Yellow-green, alkaline solution containing

Bile salts - cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification and absorption Bilirubin - pigment formed from heme
Bacteria break down in intestine to stercobilin brown color of feces

Cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and electrolytes

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Bile Enterohepatic circulation

Recycles bile salts Bile salts duodenum reabsorbed from ileum hepatic portal blood liver secreted into bile

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The Gallbladder Thin-walled muscular sac on ventral surface of liver Stores and concentrates bile by absorbing water and ions Muscular contractions release bile via cystic duct, which flows into bile duct

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The Gallbladder High cholesterol; too few bile salts gallstones (biliary calculi)
Obstruct flow of bile from gallbladder
May cause obstructive jaundice

Gallbladder contracts against sharp crystals pain Treated with drugs, ultrasound vibrations (lithotripsy), laser vaporization, surgery

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Pancreas Location
Mostly retroperitoneal, deep to greater curvature of stomach Head encircled by duodenum; tail abuts spleen

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Pancreas Endocrine function

Pancreatic islets secrete insulin and glucagon

Exocrine function
Acini (clusters of secretory cells) secrete pancreatic juice
To duodenum via main pancreatic duct Zymogen granules of acini cells contain proenzymes

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Figure 23.26a Structure of the enzyme-producing tissue of the pancreas.

Small duct Acinar cell Basement membrane Zymogen granules Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Duct cell

One acinus
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Figure 23.26b Structure of the enzyme-producing tissue of the pancreas.

Acinar cells

Pancreatic duct

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Pancreatic Juice 1200 1500 ml/day Watery alkaline solution (pH 8) neutralizes chyme Electrolytes (primarily HCO3) Enzymes
Amylase, lipases, nucleases secreted in active form but require ions or bile for optimal activity Proteases secreted in inactive form
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Pancreatic Juice Protease activation in duodenum

Trypsinogen activated to trypsin by brush border enzyme enteropeptidase Procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen activated by trypsin

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Figure 23.27 Activation of pancreatic proteases in the small intestine.

Stomach

Pancreas

Epithelial cells

Membrane-bound enteropeptidase Trypsinogen (inactive) Chymotrypsinogen (inactive) Procarboxypeptidase (inactive) Trypsin Chymotrypsin Carboxypeptidase

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Figure 23.23 Microvilli of the small intestine.

Mucus granules

Microvilli forming the brush border

Absorptive cell
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Large Intestine Unique features

Teniae coli
Three bands of longitudinal smooth muscle in muscularis

Haustra
Pocketlike sacs caused by tone of teniae coli

Epiploic appendages
Fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum

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Large Intestine Regions

Cecum Appendix Colon Rectum Anal canal

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Figure 23.29a Gross anatomy of the large intestine.

Left colic (splenic) flexure Right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse colon Superior mesenteric artery Haustrum Ascending colon IIeum IIeocecal valve Transverse mesocolon Epiploic appendages Descending colon

Cut edge of mesentery Tenia coli

Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal

Sigmoid colon

External anal sphincter

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Subdivisions of the Large Intestine Cecum first part of large intestine Appendix masses of lymphoid tissue
Part of MALT of immune system Bacterial storehouse recolonizes gut when necessary Twisted enteric bacteria accumulate and multiply

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Colon Retroperitoneal except for transverse and sigmoid regions Ascending colon (right side to level of right kidney) right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse colon left colic (splenic) flexure Descending colon (left side) Sigmoid colon in pelvis rectum
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Figure 23.30c Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.

Greater omentum
Transverse colon

Transverse mesocolon
Descending colon Jejunum Mesentery Sigmoid mesocolon Sigmoid colon Ileum

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Figure 23.30d Mesenteries of the abdominal digestive organs.

Liver Lesser omentum Pancreas Stomach Duodenum Transverse mesocolon Transverse colon Mesentery Greater omentum Jejunum Ileum Visceral peritoneum Parietal peritoneum Urinary bladder Rectum
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Rectum and Anus Rectum

Three rectal valves stop feces from being passed with gas (flatus)

Anal canal
Last segment of large intestine Opens to body exterior at anus

Sphincters
Internal anal sphinctersmooth muscle External anal sphincterskeletal muscle
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Figure 23.29b Gross anatomy of the large intestine.

Rectal valve Rectum Hemorrhoidal veins Levator ani muscle

Anal canal External anal sphincter Internal anal sphincter Anal columns Pectinate line Anal sinuses Anus
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Large Intestine: Microscopic Anatomy Thicker mucosa of simple columnar epithelium except in anal canal (stratified squamous to withstand abrasion) No circular folds, villi, digestive secretions Abundant deep crypts with goblet cells Superficial venous plexuses of anal canal form hemorrhoids if inflamed

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Bacterial Flora Enter from small intestine or anus

Colonize colon Synthesize B complex vitamins and vitamin K Metabolize some host-derived molecules (mucin, heparin, hyaluronic acid) Ferment indigestible carbohydrates Release irritating acids and gases (~500 ml/day)

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Intestinal Flora Viruses and protozoans Bacteria prevented from breaching mucosal barrier
Epithelial cells recruit dendritic cells to mucosa sample microbial antigens present to T cells of MALT IgA antibodymediated response restricts microbes

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Digestive Processes in the Large Intestine Residue remains in large intestine 1224 hours No food breakdown except by enteric bacteria Vitamins (made by bacterial flora), water, and electrolytes (especially Na+ and Cl) reclaimed Major functions - propulsion of feces to anus; defecation Colon not essential for life
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