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Introduction
Analytical x-ray devices are important tools in various areas of modern research. X-ray crystallography and x-ray fluorescence spectrometry rely on x-radiation. But, X-ray diffraction equipment [XRD] can be very dangerous, and operators of this equipment must not become complacent or overconfident about the potential danger of the x-ray beam.
X-ray Production
When high energy electrons strike an anode in a sealed vacuum, x-rays are generated. Anodes are often made of copper, iron or molybdenum. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation. They have enough energy to cause ionization.
Radiation Units
Roentgen R unit of exposure, in air for photons only. One R equals enough energy to deposit 2.58 x 10 -4 coulombs per kg in dry air. Rad unit of absorbed dose. Equal to one hundred ergs per gram Rem unit of dose equivalent. For x-rays, 1 rad = 1 rem Milli 1/1000th, as in millirem or mRem
* For comparison, the annual whole body occupational exposure limit is 5 Rem. Radioisotope users at Tufts generally receive < 100 mRem/yr.
Whole body, lens of eye, head, trunk Hands, arms, skin of whole body
5 50
ALARA
ALARA stands for as low as reasonably achievable. Regulators recognize that it is an individual workers responsibility to perform tasks on a daily basis keeping best practices in mind, and striving to keep radiation exposure as low as possible. Workers are responsible for knowing all hazards and safety practices that relate to the equipment in use.
Erythema Epilation
300-600 350 temporary 1200 permanent 3000-4000 thousands of Rem in many small doses over many years small doses over a long period of time
NA
Skin Cancer
???
WARNING
Very serious injuries have resulted from the use of XRD equipment. Large doses of radiation have caused painful burns and permanent injuries to workers.
You could be injured without initially knowing it People are not able to sense radiation. Even very large doses of radiation can not be felt. Just because there was no sensation at the time the dose is received, does not mean you are safe. Serious injury can result for radiation exposure. It is up to the individual x-ray user to ensure that they are trained, follow all precautions, and use all x-ray equipment safely.
Sources of Exposure
The primary beam, Leakage of primary beam through cracks in shielding, Penetration of primary beam through shutters, cameras, beam stops, etc., Secondary emission (fluorescence) from a sample or shielding material, Diffracted rays from crystal, Radiation generated by rectifiers in the high voltage power supply of older units.
3. Leakage
1. Primary Beam
2. Scattered Radiation
Three regions of high exposure include the primary beam, scattered radiation, and leakage radiation.
1.Primary Beam The critical radiation exposure problem with analytical X-ray equipment is the primary beam. Exposure to the primary beam can cause localized acute exposure. Consequently, the analytical operator must never intentionally place any part of their body in the primary beam. Typically, these beams are relatively soft X-rays resulting in maximal energy deposition in epithelial tissues. Erythema or reddening of the skin can occur when skin is acutely exposed to 300-600 R (much less than a second). Radiation burns may occur from longer exposures. 2.Scattered Radiation When the primary beam intersects a material such as a sample or elements of the X-ray unit including the beam stop, some of the radiation is scattered out of the primary beam. While these radiation fields are considerable less intense than the primary beam, they still represent a potential hazard. Scattered radiation fields can be measured by the analytical operators with a survey meter. 3.Leakage Some radiation may leak around the tube housing structure. The source housing construction must be such that when all the shutters are closed, the leakage radiation must not exceed that of radiation limits for the general public.
Safety Basics
Time minimizing time around a radiation source will reduce total exposure Distance maximize distance from a radiation source to reduce total exposure See Inverse Square Law Shielding material used to attenuate radiation and reduce occupational exposure. For x-rays, shielding is most often lead.
1 / d2
DETAILED INSTRUCTION ON THE SAFE USE OF XRD MUST BE PROVIDED BY THE SUPERVISING PI AND/OR HIS/HER DESIGNEE. THIS INSTRUCTION MUST INCLUDE DEMONSTRATION OF ALL SAFETY FEATURES OF ALL SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT TO BE USED. BEFORE BEGINNING USE OF ANY XRAY EQUIPMENT, BE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND ALL OF THE TRAINING. IF PROBLEMS OR QUESTIONS ARISE, STOP WORK AND CONSULT YOUR SUPERVISOR AND THE EQUIPMENT OWNER/SUPERVISOR.
Wavelengths used in crystallography are often in the range of 0.6 to 2.5 A. The 1.54 A wavelength corresponds to CuKa radiation.
Engineering Controls
Interlocks never bypass interlocks or other safety devices Warning Lights know the beam status whenever working with XRD Shielding Secure key or computer control
Interlocks
Safety interlocks should not be used to deactivate the x-ray beam, except in emergencies and when testing the interlock system.
Warning Lights
Each port must have a readily discernible indication of shutter status [opened or closed]. There must be a warning light that is illuminated when the x-ray tube is energized. The light must be near the x-ray tube housing or port and be in the operators field of view.
XRD units should not be open and allow inadvertent radiation exposure.
Older model open type units do not meet current radiation safety standards.
Current standards require interlocked Plexiglas enclosures to prevent access to the primary beam when the unit is in operation. Enclosures can also protect persons from leakage and scatter radiation.
Administrative Controls
Detailed training by PI or his/her designee Detailed SOPs policies and procedures Close supervision by knowledgeable user Authorized users only unit security Constant vigilance and alertness to the dangers.
General Precautions
Only Trained personnel shall be permitted to operate an analytical unit. Be familiar with the procedure to be carried out. Never expose any part of your body to the primary beam. Turn the X-ray beam OFF before attempting to make any changes to the experimental set-up (except for beam alignment) While the beam is on DO NOT attempt to handle, manipulate or adjust any object (sample, sample holder, collimator, etc.) which is in the direct beam path (except for beam alignment procedures). Examine the system carefully for any system modifications or irregularities. Follow the operating procedures carefully. DO NOT take short cuts! Never leave the energized system unattended in an area where access in not controlled.
General Precautions
Survey the area frequently to evaluate scatter and leakage radiation fields. Never remove auxiliary shielding without authorization from the owner of the analytical equipment or the Radiation Safety Officer. Never bypass safety circuits, such as interlocks. Report all unusual occurrences to the owner of the analytical unit for possible corrective actions. Only authorized, trained individuals as specified by the units owner and the Safety Office may repair, align or make modifications to the X-ray apparatus.
Special Tasks
Only trained, authorized experts are allowed to repair, maintain or reconfigure XRD equipment.
Get medical treatment immediately for all injuries and exposures - at TMC [or the nearest hospital for Grafton or Medford.]
ASAP notify your supervisor and EHS, Take XRD unit out of service to prevent injuries to others, Provide information during the incident investigation.
Radiation Badges
Anyone at Tufts University who uses x-ray diffraction equipment and most other types of x-ray equipment should wear radiation monitoring badges. Contact Health Physics at 636-6168 to make arrangements to obtain monitoring badges. In Medford, contact EHS at 636-3450.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Rigaku, and Global Dosimetry Solutions for allowing use of photos, images and/or other information from their respective websites.