Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Stress in Organization, Management of Stress Power and Politics in Organization: Nature & Concepts,
Change.
Learning Organization.
Meaning Factors
influencing stress Early warning signs of stress Causes of stress Symptoms of stress Kinds of stress Why prevent work stress Stress control- ABC Stragey Stress Management Techniques
the
harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of a job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.
Stress is a reaction people have to pressure placed upon them and occurs when pressures exceed the individuals ability to cope.
-
A normal part of life Has good and bad implications Biological response to our environment Physical and mental reactions
Worried
Tensed Tired Frightened Elated Depressed Anxious Angry
Overwork Under-work
Relationships at work
Uncertainty Conflict Responsibility Poor Job Content: boredom, lack of meaning Organizational policies and procedures
Headache
Sleep
Disturbances Difficulty in concentrating Short Temper Upset Stomach Job Dissatisfaction Low Morale
Physical
Noise
Bright Heat Confined
Lights
Spaces
Rudeness
Bossiness Aggressiveness Bullying
by others
- Tape Deadlines
Death
Lost
Commuting
Misplaced
Lifestyle
Caffeine
Lack
Pessimistic
Unrealistic
expectations Taking things personally All or nothing thinking Exaggeration Rigid thinking
Perfectionists
Workaholics
Physical
Sleep
pattern changes Fatigue Digestion changes Headaches Aches and pains Infections Indigestion
Dizziness
Fainting
Sweating
& trembling Tingling hands & feet Breathlessness Palpitations Missed heartbeats
Lack
Appetite changes - too much or too little Eating disorders Increased intake of alcohol & other drugs Increased smoking Restlessness Fidgeting/ Restlessness Nail biting Hypochondria (The persistent conviction that one is or is likely to become ill, often involving symptoms when illness is neither present nor likely, and persisting despite reassurance and medical evidence to the contrary)
Bouts
of depression Impatience Fits of rage Tearfulness Deterioration of personal hygiene and appearance
Stress is not the same as ill-health, but has been related to such illnesses as;
Cardiovascular
1. NEGATIVE STRESS It is a contributory factor in minor conditions, such as headaches, digestive problems, skin complaints, insomnia and ulcers. Excessive, prolonged and unrelieved stress can have a harmful effect on mental, physical and spiritual health.
Stress can also have a positive effect, spurring motivation and awareness, providing the stimulation to cope with challenging situations. Stress also provides the sense of urgency and alertness needed for survival when confronting threatening situations.
Healthcare expenditures are close to 50% greater for stressed workers compared to non-stressed workers. Overall, stress in a business contributes to 19% absenteeism costs and 40% turnover costs.
ABC Strategy
A = Awareness
What causes your stress? How do you react?
B = Balance
There is a fine line between positive/ negative stress. How much can you cope with before it becomes negative?
C = Control
What can you do to help yourself combat the negative effects of stress?
Re-framing
Positive
Thinking
Be
Assertive Get Organized/ prioritize Time Management Sharing your problem Humour Diversion and Distraction
Make
a list What must be done What should be done What would you like to do Cut out time wasting Learn to drop unimportant activities Say no or delegate
Plan
your day Set achievable goals Dont waste time making excuses for not doing something
Diet
Smoking Exercise Leisure Relaxation
and Alcohol
EXERCISE
Improves blood circulation Lowers blood pressure Clears the mind of worrying thoughts Improves self image Makes you feel better about yourself Increase social contact
Good
stress reducer Difficult to cope when tired Wake refreshed after nights sleep Plenty of daytime energy
Interest Gives
you a break from stresses Provides outlet for relief Provides social contact
Lowers
blood pressure Combats fatigue Promotes sleep Reduces pain Eases muscle tension
Decreases
mental
Counseling
Relaxation Meditation Massage Yoga
and Psychotherapy
Acupuncture Aromatherapy
Negative Copers
Smoking Drinking Illegal Drugs Blaming others Other self destructive behaviors
Positive Copers
Exercising Support groups Yoga Meditation Good Eating Habits Changing a negative attitude
Stress can be a major factor in our ability to cope with our working life. It is often thought of in a negative way as something to be avoided, something harmful, but stress cannot always be avoided and its effects are harmful only when it is handled badly.
The potential to influence others People have power they dont use and may not know they possess Power requires one persons perception of dependence on another person
The
One
person exerts power over another to the degree that he is able to exact compliance as desired A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do something that B would otherwise not do. The ability of those who possess power to bring about the outcomes they desire. The capacity to effect (or affect)
Positive
Leading Influencing Selling Persuading
Negative
Coercing Forcing Hurting
Crushing
Negative
Positive
Coercive Reward
Legitimate Expert
Referent
Coercive
One
reacts to this type of power out of fear of the negative results that might occur if one fails to comply It rests on the application (or the threat) of physical sanctions
is
the opposite of coercive power People comply because doing so produces benefits anyone who can distribute rewards that others value will have power over them
represents
the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward it includes acceptance of a persons authority by members of the organization
is
influence wielded as a result of experience, special skill, or knowledge Expertise has become a strong source of influence as the world has become more technologically oriented As jobs become more specialized, we become more dependent on experts
is
based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or admirable personal traits. It develops out of an admiration for someone and a desire to be like that person If person A admires person B enough to model behavior and attitudes after him or her, then person B has power over person A
Sources Of Power
Contingencies Of Power
The Caine Mutiny illustrates the limits of legitimate power in organizations. Captain Queeg (Humphrey Bogart, seated left) asked his crew to do more than they were willing to follow, so they staged a mutiny.
Archive Photos
Power
that achieves compliance based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable Coercive Power: the opposite of reward power: the power that is based on fear of negative results.
Legitimate Power
Reward Power
Coercive Power
Expert Power
Archive Photos
Referent Power
Influence
Influence
The
Consequences of Power
Commitment
Attempts
Politics
(1.22) (1.07)
(.73) (.54)
.6
.5 .4 .3
(.50)
(.18)
.2
.1 Production and Clerical and Technical and Lower Middle Upper blue collar white collar professional management management management
Organizational Level
Managing impressions
Creating obligations
Controlling information
Cultivating networks
Forming coalitions
Change is inevitable and is a continuous process. All organisations are existing in a changing environment and they themselves are continuously changing.
WHY CHANGE? For change to be adapted by all the concerned people, requires adequate planning, sharing of information, generating ideas, understanding the current situation, preparation, evaluation and reinforcing.
organizational culture, business processes, physical environment, job design / responsibilities, staff skills / knowledge and policies / procedures.
Any change to be effective requires some essential aspects to it. These are: Commitment Cognizance Competence Cooperation Coordination Communication
Commitment- Commitment of the top management is most important for change to be initiated. Cognizance- There should be an awareness of the change and the process being adopted in the organisation. Competence- It is essential to put into practice what is being taught. Cooperation- Cooperation of all the members of the organisation is required to bring about change in the organisation. Coordination- Coordination among all the members is essential if the organisation wants to make sure that all the members are moving in the same direction. Communication- Communication and consultation are necessary to facilitate change. The achievement of change is a joint concern of management and employees. Major changes in work arrangements.
Planned change is change resulting from a deliberate decision to alter the organization. Companies that wish to move from a traditional hierarchical structure to one that facilitates self-managed teams must use a proactive, carefully orchestrated approach. Not all change is planned, however.
Unplanned change is imposed on the organization and is often unforeseen. Changes in government regulations and changes in the economy, for example, are often unplanned. Responsiveness to unplanned change requires tremendous flexibility and adaptability on the part of the organizations.
Managers must be prepared to handle both planned and unplanned forms of change in organizations.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Forces for change can come from many sources. Some of these are external, arising from outside the company, whereas others are internal, arising from sources within the organization.
1.
External Forces - The four major external forces for change are globalization, workforce diversity, technological change, and managing ethical behavior are challenges that precipitate change in organizations. Internal Forces- Pressures for change that originate inside the organization are generally recognizable in the form of signals indicating that something needs to be altered. Eg. Declining effectiveness is a pressure to change. A crisis also may stimulate change in an organization. Changes in employee expectations also can trigger change in organizations. Changes in the work climate at an organization can also stimulate change.
2.
People often resist change in a rational response based on self interest. However, there are countless other reasons people resist change. Many of these center around the notion of reactance that is, a negative reaction that occurs when individuals feel that their personal freedom is threatened. Some of the major reasons for resisting change follows:
Uncertainty- Uncertainty about the outcome of training makes people resistant to training. Fear of unknown is a strong obstacle in such a case. Fear of loss of status- When training is introduced, employees may fear losing their jobs and the fear becomes acute when advanced technology in introduced. Some people, most likely, will gain in status, job security, quality of life, etc. with the proposed change, and some will likely lose a bit. Habit- Habits, employees actions for familiar actions and events are also obstacles in training. People generally have a tendency to return to their original behaviour, a tendency that prevents training in the organization. Selective Perceptions- Perception plays an important role in shaping employees attitude and behaviour. There is a tendency for people to selectively perceive information that is consistent with their existing views of their organizations. Thus. When training takes place, workers tend to focus only on how it will personally affect them or their division. As a result, it can be difficult for an organization to develop a common platform to promote training across the organization and to get people to see the need for training in the same way.
Cognitive Biases- The cognitive biases can influence an individuals perception of a given situation and make them interpret the situation in ways that benefit themselves. People many a times believe that the proposed change is a bad idea. The risk of change is seen as greater than the risk of standing still. People feel connected to other people who are identified with the old wayWe are social species. We become and like to remain connected to those we know, those who have taught us, those with whom we are familiar. People fear they lack the competence to changeThis is a fear people will seldom admit. But sometimes, change in organizations necessitates changes in skills, and some people will feel that they wont be able to make the transition very well. They dont think they, as individuals, can do it.
People feel overloaded by changeFatigue can really kill a change effort, for an individual or for an organization. If an organization has been through a lot of upheaval, people may resist change just because they are tired and overwhelmed, perhaps at precisely the time when more radical change is most needed.
15% of the workforce is eager to accept it 15% of the workforce is dead set against it 70% is sitting on the fence, waiting to see what happens
Anticipation. The waiting stage. People really don't know what to expect so they wait, anticipating what the future holds. Confrontation. People begin to confront reality. They realize that change is really going to happen or is happening. Realization. Post change - Realizing that nothing is ever going to be as it once was. Depression. Often a necessary step in the change process. This is the stage where a person mourns the past. Not only have they realized the change intellectually, but now they are beginning to comprehend it emotionally as well. Acceptance. Acceptance of the change emotionally. Although they may still have reservations, they are not fighting the change at this stage. They may even see some of the benefits even if they are not completely convinced. Enlightenment. In Phase 6, people completely accept the new change. In fact, many wonder how they ever managed the "old" way. Overall, they feel good about the change and accept it.
UNFREEZING
Resistance to change lessened, need for change created (Equilibrium disturbed) MOVING
An effective manager...: anticipates the need for change as opposed to reacting after the event to the emergency; diagnoses the nature of change that is required and carefully considers a number of alternatives that might improve organisational functioning, as opposed to taking the fastest way to escape the problem; and manages the change process over a period of time so that it is effective and accepted as opposed to lurching from one crisis to another.
(Pugh, D. (1993). Understanding and managing change. In Maybey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (Eds.) Managing Change, Second edition. London, P.C.P.).
Leaders should anticipate resistance to any change effort, prepare for it, and make special efforts to assess and deal with individual reactions to training/change. Leaders must develop the proper attitude toward resistance to training/change and realize that it is neither good nor bad. In fact, resistance can serve as a signal that there are ways in which the change effort should be modified and improved. The following steps should help leaders faced with resistance to their change attempts:
Actively seek out people's thoughts and reactions to the proposed changes. Listen carefully. Do not launch into lengthy diatribes justifying the change - in the early stages, people are not interested in that. They want to be heard and have their concerns attended to. Recognize that it takes time to work through reactions to change.
Engage people in dialogue about the change. Leaders should do this only after fully understanding the specific concerns of others.
Involve Others
ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
A long-term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organization's visioning, empowerment, learning, and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of organizations culture.
Beckhard defines Organization Development (OD) as an effort, planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organization's processes, using behavioral-science knowledge. The practice of changing people and organizations for positive growth."
Planned. OD takes a long-range approach to improving organizational performance and efficiency. It avoids the (usual) "quick-fix". Organization-wide. OD focuses on the total system. Managed from the top. To be effective, OD must have the support of topmanagement. They have to model it, not just espouse it. The OD process also needs the buy-in and ownership of workers throughout the organization. Increase organization effectiveness and health. OD is tied to the bottom-line. Its goal is to improve the organization, to make it more efficient and more competitive by aligning the organization's systems with its people. Planned interventions. After proper preparation, OD uses activities called interventions to make systemwide, permanent changes in the organization. Using behavioral-science knowledge. OD is a discipline that combines research and experience to understanding people, business systems, and their interactions.
It emphasises goals and processes with emphasis on processes It deals with change over medium and long-term It is about people and recognises their worth It involves the organisation as a whole as well as its parts It emphasises the concept of a change agent/facilitator It uses action research as a means of intervention It is participative, drawing on theory and practices of the behavioural sciences It subscribes to a humanistic philosophy of openness It is a process of facilitation at the individual, group and organisational level It has top-management support and involvement
The volume of change in many organisations is massive The economic scene places demands on managers while they are reluctant to change from tried and tested methods The role of management is changing and new models are needed Change management takes time
Some changes challenge basic assumptions, for example, the role of supervisory staff
The need for control remains - the skill is remaining in control when so much change is going on. More comprehensive strategic pictures are needed which integrate different changes in the organisation and alleviate confusion. Organisation design and re-design are as important and necessary as product, process or system design and are the responsibility of management and people in organisations, not just specialists.
A learning organization is the term given to a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. Learning organizations develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations and enables them to remain competitive in the business environment. An organisation that learns and encourages learning among its people. It promotes exchange of information between employees hence creating a more knowledgable workforce. This produces a very flexible organisation where people will accept and adapt to new ideas and changes through a shared vision.
A learning organisation therefore is an organisation whose people are in a continuous search for new and better ways to adapt to change and enhance performance.
A learning organization has five main features; systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning.
1.
Systems thinking- The idea of the learning organization developed from a body of work called systems thinking. Systems thinking states that all the characteristics must be apparent at once in an organization for it to be a learning organization. If some of these characteristics is missing then the organization will fall short of its goal.
Personal mastery. The commitment by an individual to the process of learning is known as personal mastery.[There is a competitive advantage for an organization whose workforce can learn quicker than the workforce of other organizations. Individual learning is acquired through staff training and development
2.
3. Mental models. The assumptions held by individuals and organizations are called mental models. In creating a learning environment it is important to replace confrontational attitudes with an open culture. Unwanted values need to be discarded in a process called unlearning.[
4.
Shared vision. The development of a shared vision is important in motivating the staff to learn, as it creates a common identity that provides focus and energy for learning.
5. Team learning. The benefit of team or shared learning is that staff grow more quickly and the problem solving capacity of the organization is improved through better access to knowledge and expertise. Team learning requires individuals to engage in dialogue and discussion; therefore team members must develop open communication, shared meaning, and shared understanding.
visioning Proactive learning Continuous experimentation & risk taking Leaders as facilitators and learning leaders Team learning
each organization has a unique social structure and that these social
structures drive much of the individual behavior observed in organizations.
Comprised of the assumptions, values, norms of organization members and their behaviors.
A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organisation from other organisations. Culture is about how the organisation organises itself, it's rules, procedures and beliefs make up the culture of the company. The specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization.
Culture
is a societys (or groups) system of shared, learned values and norms; as a whole, these values and norms are the societys design for living
Values: abstract ideas about the good, the right, the desirable Norms: social rules and guidelines; determine appropriate behavior in specific situations
Culture is learned, shared, and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Culture can be passed from parents to children, by social organizations, special interest groups, the government, schools, and churches. Culture is multidimensional, consisting of a number of common elements that are interdependent.
Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms of organization members and their behaviors. Members of an organization soon come to sense the particular culture of an organization. Culture is one of those terms that's difficult to express distinctly, but everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, the culture of a large, for-profit corporation is quite different than that of a hospital which is quite different than that of a university. The Indian perspective of culture given by Sinha (2000) suggests that Culture consists of totality of assumptions, beliefs, values, social systems and institutions, physical artifacts and behaviour of people, reflecting their desire to maintain continuity as well as to adapt to external demands.
Organizational
culture is the collective behavior of humans who are part of an organization and the meanings that the people attach to their actions. Culture includes the organization values, visions, norms, working language, systems, symbols, beliefs and habits.
The culture of an organisation may reflect in various forms adopted by the organisation. These could be :
The physical infrastructure Routine behaviour, langauge, ceremonies
Religion
Material Elements
Social Institutions
Education
111
Aesthetics
1.
2. 3. 4.
Barrier to change and improvement Barrier to diversity Barrier to cross departmental and cross organizational cooperation Barrier to mergers and acquisitions
Acculturation is the process of adjusting and adapting to a specific culture other than ones own. It is one of the keys to success in international operations.
High-context culture
Low-context culture
what is not being said can carry more meaning than what is said focuses on group development Japan and Saudi Arabia are examples
what is said is more important that what is not said focuses on individual development The U.S. is an example
115
Slide 3-7
High-Context Crucial to Communications: external environment, situation, non-verbal behavior Rela tionships: long lasting, deep personal mutual involvement Communication: economic al, f ast because of shared "code" Authority person: responsible f or actio ns of subordinates, loyalty at a premium Agreements: spoken, f lexible and changeable Insiders vs outsiders: very distin guishable Cultural pattern change: slo w
Low -Context explicit inf ormatio n, blu nt communicative style short duration, heterogeneous populations explicit messages, lo w reliance on non verbal dif fused through bureaucratic system, personal responsibility tough to pin dow n w ritten, f inal and binding, litigious, more law yers dif ficult to identify, foreigners can adjust f aster
See E.T. Hall & M.R. Hall, Understanding cultural differences, 1990, Intercultural Press
Power
Culture Role Culture Task Culture Person culture Forward looking culture Backward looking culture
Cultural
diversity is having people of different races, cultures, religions, nationalities, ethnic groups and backgrounds making up a community.
= belief that ones own group or subculture is inherently superior to other groups or cultures
Enthnorelativism
Pluralism
119
Mind-Sets about Diversity Problem or opportunity? Challenge met or barely addressed? Level of majority-culture buy-in (resistance or support)
Education Programs Educate management on valuing differences Promoting knowledge and acceptance Taking advantage of the opportunities that diversify provides
HR Management Systems (Bias Free?) Recruitment Training and development Performance appraisal Compensation and benefits Promotion
Source: Taylor H. Cox and Stacy Blake,Managing Cultural Diversity: Implications For Organizational Competitiveness, Academy of Management Executive 5, no 3 (1991), 45-56
Heterogeneity in Race/Ethnicity/Nationality Effect on cohesiveness, communication, conflict, morale Effects of group identity on interaction (e.g., stereotyping) Prejudice (racism, ethnocentrism)
Higher Career Involvement of Women Dual-career couples Sexism and sexual harassment Work-family conflict
120
An
invisible barrier separates women and minorities from top management positions
Fortune 500 Women Corporate Officers 2004 = 15.7% 2000 = 12.5% 1995 = 8.7%
121
Adaptation Able to shift from one cultural perspective to another Able to empathize with those Acceptance of other cultures Accepts behavioral differences and underlying differences in values Recognizes validity of other ways of Minimizing Differences thinking and perceiving the world Hides or trivializes cultural differences
Integration Multicultural attitude-enables one to integrate differences and adapt both cognitively and behaviorally
Ethics
is the branch of philosophy that focuses on morality and the way in which moral principles are applied to everyday life. Ethics has to do with fundamental questions such as What is fair? What is just? What is the right thing to do in this situation?
Descriptive
Normative
Fellow Workers
Fellow Workers
Regions of Country
Family
Profession
The Individual
Conscience Friends Employer
The Law
Religious Beliefs
Society at Large
125
Ethics
involves a discipline that examines good or bad practices within the context of a moral duty. Moral conduct is behavior that is right or wrong. Business ethics include practices and behaviors that are good or bad at the workplace.
The standards of conduct and moral values governing actions and decisions in the work environment. Social responsibility.
128
1.
2. 3.
Immoral ManagementA style devoid of ethical principles and active opposition to what is ethical. Moral ManagementConforms to high standards of ethical behavior. Amoral Management
Intentional - does not consider ethical factors Unintentional - casual or careless about ethical considerations in business
129
6-19
compared with
131
Organizational effectiveness is the concept of how effective an organization is in achieving the outcomes the organization intends to produce.
Effectiveness refers to the degree of congruence between organizational goals and some observed outcome.
Organizations can be effective or ineffective in a number of different ways, and these ways may be relatively independent of one another.
Productivity Efficiency Employee absenteeism Turnover Goal consensus Conflict Participation in decision making Stability Communication
Are the employees satisfied with the organisation? Are the customers satisfied with the organisation? Is the organisation profitable? Is the organisation growing in terms of profit, revenue, number of products, expansion into new locations, line of products etc? Is the organisation productive i.e., creating goods and services of high value at minimum cost? and Is the organisation innovative or stale?
Several factors influence the organisational effectiveness. 1. Managerial Policies and Practices 2. Environmental Characteristics 3. Employee characteristics 4. Organisational Characteristics
Managerial policies and practices have a direct bearing on the Organisational effectiveness. The major managerial policies and practices are as follows :
Organisational effectiveness is influenced to a great degree by the external environmental characteristics. It is dependent on how is the external environment predictable, complex and hostile to the organisation and its activity. The major characteristics are as follows:
Predictability- Predictability refers to how certain or uncertain an organisation may be towards supply of various resources; human, raw material etc. It is an element of external environment.
Complexity- Environment complexity refers to the heterogeneity and range of activities which are relevant to an organisations operations. How many diverse groups from external environment the organisations have to deal with.
Hostility- A hostile environment is one in which the underpinning of the organisation is threatened. How is an organisation viewed by the people at large.
The characteristics of the human resource could make or break an organisation. It is employee characteristics, which is reflected in the success or failure of an organisation. The major characteristics are as follows: Goals Skills Motives Attitudes Values
Organisational characteristics refer to the general conditions that exist within an organisation. Various organisational characteristics influence organisational effectiveness. The major characteristics are as follows: Structure Technology Size
Structures and behaviours are aligned with business needs. Disruption to business is minimised which reduces operational risk. Employee morale is sustained which maintains productivity. The right employees and talent are retained. Employees objectives and rewards are aligned to business goals.