Chapter 1 Introduction

Nutritional science
investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet and body nutrients requirements
the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways :the sequences of biochemical steps through which substances in living things change from one form to another

A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Nutrients are the substances that enrich the body. They build and repair tissues, give heat and energy, and regulate body processes

Body building depends on type of nutrients ingestion, digestion, absorption and their circulation in blood stream to feed cells of body. And so our foods life styles effect dramatically on our body health

Studies of nutritional status

Food input composition

Metabolism processes o

body intake= food inputsoutputs( urine+ composition)

Outputs: urine and waste

Some people are worried about the effect of food processing on nutritional value like canning, freezing, dehydration, and fortifying

Factors contributing to poor nutrition

income lack of education Some bad behaviors in nutrition: 1- less intake of deep green and yellow vegetables, vit c rich fruit, and whole grain bread and cereals 2- fats and sugars contribute as much as 30% of calories 3- breakfast is often skipped 4- high calorie food and low nutrient lunch 5- snacks are too frequently made up of high calorie, low nutrients density

Chapter two Nutrients

2.Nutrients
There are seven major classes of nutrients: Carbohydrates Fats fibers Proteins Minerals Vitamins water

Nutrients classified into:

Macronutrients ( needed in large quantities) like: carbohydrates, water, fibers, and fats. Micronutrients ( needed in small quantities) like: vitamins and minerals

The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), energy.
Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram

Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances such as toxins or various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (eg, the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) with cause illness or even death in too large amounts

Requirement Minimum amount of a nutrient needed to sustain a physiological state, function, or structure in an individual
Recommendation Normalized estimate of nutrient needed to cover most individuals in a population group

RDA - Recommended Dietary Allowance of nutritional elements

RDA, or known by its full name Recommended Daily Allowance - is busy being revised and will be called the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) and is a collaborative effort between the USA and Canada

The RDA represents the establishment of a nutritional form for planning and assessing dietary intake, and are the levels of intake of essential nutrients considered to be adequate to meet the known needs of practically all healthy people. These figures were first published in 1943 and have been updated and expanded as data became available

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): The average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirements of half of the healthy individuals in a group classified by age and gender.

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): An average daily dietary nutrient intake level that is estimated to meet the nutrient requirements of most (97% to 98%) healthy individuals in a group classified by age and gender.

Adequate Intake (AI): A recommended average daily intake level based on observed or experimentally determined approximations or estimates of nutrient intake by a group (or groups) of apparently healthy people who are assumed to be maintaining adequate nutrition. The AI is used when an RDA cannot be determined.

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR): An estimate of the range of intakes of an energy source associated with a reduced risk of chronic disease and adequate amounts of essential nutrients. AMDR is expressed as a percentage of total energy intake, with lower and upper boundaries: Carbohydrate: 35% to 55% of calories Fat: 20% to 35% of calories Protein: 15% to 35% of calories

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Energy Age Children 4-6 7-10 Males 15-18 19-24 25-50 50+ Females 15-18 19-24 25-50 k. cal 1,800 2,400/ 2,000 3,000 3,000/ 2,900 2,700 2,400 2,100 2,100 2,000 Protein g 30/24 36/28 54/59 54/58 56/63 56/63 48/44 46/46 46/50 Vitamin A *ug IU RE 2,50 500 0 3,30 500 0 5,00 1,00 0 0 5,00 1,00 0 0 5,00 1,00 0 0 5,00 1,00 0 0 4,00 800 0 4,00 800 0 4,00 800 0 4,00 800 0 Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K *mg IU *ug IU *ug TE 400 400 400 400 400 400 5 5 5 5 5 10 5 5 5 9 10 15 15 15 15 12 12 12 7 7 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 -/20 -/30 -/65 -/70 -/80 -/80 -/55 -/60 -/65

50+

1,800

46/50

10

12

-/65

Water Soluble Vitamins

Age Ascorbic Acid mg Children 4-6 7-10 Males 15-18 19-24 25-50 50+ Females 15-18 19-24 25-50 50+ 40/45 40/45 45/60 45/60 45/60 45/60 45/60 45/60 45/60 45/60 Folacin/ Niacin Folate mcg 200/75 mg 12 Riboflavi Vitamin Thiamine n B6 mg 1.1 1.2 1.8 1.8/1.7 1.6/1.7 1.5/1.4 1.4/1.3 1.4/1.3 1.2/1.3 1.1/1.2 mg 0.9 1.2/1.0 1.5 1.5 1.4/1.5 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0/1.1 1.0 mg 0.9/1.1 1.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0/1.5 2.0/1.6 2.0/1.6 2.0/1.6 Vitamin B12 mcg 1.5/1.0 2.0/1.4 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0 3.0/2.0

300/100 16/13 400/200 20 400/200 20/19 400/200 18/19 400/200 16/15 400/180 14/15 400/180 14/15 400/180 13/15 400/180 12/13

Minerals and others

Age Calcium mg Children 4-6 7-10 Males 15-18 800 800 Phospho Iodine rous mg ug Iron mg 10 Magnesi Zinc um mg mg Seleniu Fluoride m *ug -/20 -/30 -/50 *mg -/1.1 -/3.2 -/3.8

800/500 80/90 800

200/130 10 250 10

110/120 10 18/12

1200/130 1200/125 150 0 0

400/410 15

19-24
25-50 50+ Females 15-18 19-24 25-50 50+

800/1000 800/700 140/150 10

800/1000 800/700 130/150 10 800/1200 800/700 110/150 10 1200/130 1200/125 115/150 18/15 0 0 800/1000 800/700 100/150 18/15 800/1000 800/700 100/150 18/15 800/1200 800/700 80/150 10

350/400 15
350/420 15 350/420 15 300/360 15/12 300/310 15/12 300/320 15/12 300/320 15/12

-/70
-/70 -/70 -/50 -/55 -/55 -/55

-/3.8
-/3.8 -/2.9 -/3.1 -/3.1 -/3.1 -/3.1

Chapter 3 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates or saccharides are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (e.g., starch, glycogen) and structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants). In addition, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

Carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of Nacetylglucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose.

Use in living organisms

Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to more space efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose.

Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients in humans: the body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats. However, the brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat and need glucose for energy; the body can make some glucose from a few of the amino acids in protein and also from the glycerol backbone in triglycerides

Based on the effects on risk of heart disease and obesity, the Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of dietary energy from carbohydrates. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates).

Carbohydrate Catabolism
Catabolism is the metabolic reaction cells undergo in order to extract energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism:

Glycolysis Citric acid cycle

Glycolysis cycle

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread,potato, beans and other grainbased products.

Complex sugars take long time in digestion and absorption while Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients

However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch. And starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion.

2.3 Fiber
Dietary fiber (fibre), sometimes called roughage, is the indigestible portion of plant foods that pushes food through the digestive system, absorbing water and easing defecation

Chemically, dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides such as cellulose and many other plant components such as dextrins, inulin, lignin, waxes, chitins, pectins, beta-glucans and oligosaccharides. The term "fiber" is somewhat of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not fibers at all

Dietary fiber can be soluble (able to dissolve in water) or insoluble (not able to dissolve in water). Soluble fiber, like all fiber, cannot be digested. But it does change as it passes through the digestive tract, being transformed (fermented) by bacteria there. Soluble fiber also absorbs water to become a gelatinous substance that passes through the body. Insoluble fiber, however, passes through the body largely

unchanged

both types of fiber are present in all plant foods, with varying degrees of each according to a plants characteristics. Potential advantages of consuming fiber are the production of health-promoting compounds during the fermentation of soluble fiber, and insoluble fiber's ability (via its passive water-attracting properties) to increase bulk, soften stool and shorten transit time through the intestinal tract

Sources of fiber
All plants contains fibers. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly. Or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends consuming a variety of fiberrich foods.

Plant sources of fiber

Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example plums (or prunes) have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The plum's skin is an example of an insoluble fiber source, whereas soluble fiber

sources are inside the pulp

Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:

legumes (peas, soybeans, and other beans) oats, rye , and barley some fruits and fruit juices (including prune juice, plums, berries, bananas, and the insides of apples and pears) certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots and Jerusalem artichokes root vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, and onions (skins of these vegetables are sources of insoluble fiber) psyllium seed husk (a mucilage soluble fiber).

Sources of insoluble fiber include:

whole grain foods wheat and corn bran nuts and seeds potato skins flax seed vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower , zucchini (courgette), celery the skins of some fruits, including tomatoes

The five most fiber-rich plant foods, according to the Micronutrient Center of the Linus Pauling Institute, are legumes (1519 grams of fiber per US cup serving, including several types of beans, lentils and peas), wheat bran (17 grams per cup), prunes (12 grams), Asian pear (10 grams each, 3.6% by weight), and quinoa (9 grams).
Rubus fruits such as raspberry (8 grams of fiber per serving) and blackberry (7.4 grams of fiber per serving) are exceptional sources of fiber

Quinoa Rubus

Fiber supplements
gastrointestinal disorders lowering cholesterol levels reducing risk of colon cancer, losing weight.

alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea and/or constipation and abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease, as in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and Clostridium difficile, due in part to the shortchain fatty acids produced with subsequent antiinflammatory actions upon the bowel.

Inulins
Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides (several simple sugars linked together) produced by many types of plants. They belong to a class of fibers known as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a means of storing energy and is typically found in roots or rhizomes. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store other materials such as starch.

Uses in food processing

inulins flavour ranges from bland to subtly sweet (approx. 10% sweetness of sugar/sucrose). It can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour. inulin energy= -1/3 of sugars = 1/9-1/6 fat While inulin is a versatile ingredient, it also has health benefits. Inulin increases calcium absorption and possibly magnesium absorption, while promoting the growth of intestinal bacteria.

Nutritionally, it is considered a form of soluble fiber and is sometimes categorized as a prebiotic. Inulin has a minimal impact on blood sugar, andunlike fructoseis not insulemic and does not raise triglycerides, making it generally considered suitable for diabetics and potentially helpful in managing blood sugar-related illnesses.

side effect
The consumption of large quantities (particularly by sensitive or unaccustomed individuals) can lead to gas and bloating, and products which contain inulin will sometimes include a warning to add it gradually to one's diet.

Industrial use
Nonhydrolyzed inulin can also be directly converted to ethanol in a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process which may have great potential for converting crops high in inulin into ethanol for fuel

Medical
Inulin is used to help measure kidney function by determining the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). GFR is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal (kidney) glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time

Health effects
Inulin is indigestible by the human enzymes ptyalin and amylase, which are adapted to digest starch. As a result, inulin passes through much of the digestive system intact. It is only in the colon that bacteria metabolise inulin, with the release of significant quantities of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and/or methane. Inulin-containing foods can be rather gassy, particularly for those unaccustomed to inulin, and these foods should be consumed in moderation at first.

Insoluble fiber increases the movement of materials through the digestive system and increases stool bulk; it is especially helpful for those suffering from constipation or stool irregularity. Soluble fiber dissolves in water to form a gelatinous material. Some soluble fibres may help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Inulin is considered a soluble fiber.

Inulin also stimulates the growth of bacteria in the gut. Inulin passes through the stomach and duodenum undigested and is highly available to the gut bacterial flora. This makes it similar to resistant starches and other fermentable carbohydrates. This contrasts with proprietary probiotic formulations based on lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in which the bacteria have to survive very challenging conditions through the gastrointestinal tract before they are able to colonize the gut

Inulin is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) There is a single report of what is claimed to be an allergic reaction to inulin in the literature : every day billions of people eat inulin-containing foods, e.g. onions, without any suggestion of allergy.

About 3040% of people in Central Europe suffer from fructose malabsorption. Since inulin is a fructan, excess dietary intake may lead to minor side effects such as increased flatulence and loosened bowel motions in those with fructose malabsorption. It is recommended that fructan intake for people with fructose malabsorption be kept to less than 0.5 grams/serving.

Natural sources of inulin

Elecampane (Inula helenium) Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Wild Yam (Dioscorea spp.) Jerusalem artichokes (Helianthus tuberosus)

Chicory (Cichorium intybus)

Jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus)

Burdock (Arctium lappa)

Onion (Allium cepa) , Garlic (Allium sativum) Agave (Agave spp.) Yacn (Smallanthus sonchifolius spp.)

Camas (Camassia spp.)

Benefits of fiber intake

insoluble

soluble

both
Benefits

Functions
Adds bulk to your diet, making you feel full faster May reduce appetite

Attracts water and turns to gel during digestion, trapping carbohydrates and slowing absorption of glucose
Lowers total and LDL cholesterol Regulates blood sugar

Lowers variance in blood sugar levels

Reduces risk of heart disease May reduce onset risk or symptoms of metabolic syndrome and diabetes May reduce risk of colorectal cancer

Balance intestinal pH and stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids

Speed the passage of foods through the digestive system

Adds bulk to the stool

Facilitates regularity
Alleviates constipation

Guidelines on fiber intake

Current recommendations from the United States National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, suggest that adults should consume 20-35 grams of dietary fiber per day, but the average American's daily intake of dietary fiber is only 12-18 grams The ADA recommends a minimum of 20-35 g/day for a healthy adult depending on calorie intake (e.g., a 2000 cal/8400 kJ diet should include 25 g of fiber per day). The ADA's recommendation for children is that intake should equal age in years plus 5 g/day (e.g., a 4 year old should consume 9 g/day).

In clinical trials to date, these fiber sources were shown to significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels, an important factor for general cardiovascular health, and to lower risk of onset for some types of cancer

Soluble (fermentable) fiber sources gaining FDA approval are: Psyllium seed husk (7 grams per day) Beta-glucan from oat bran, whole oats, oatrim or rolled oats (3 grams per day)

Beta-glucan from whole grain or dry-milled

barley (3 grams per day)

Other examples of fermentable fiber sources (from plant foods or biotechnology) used in functional foods and supplements include inulin, resistant dextrins, fructans, xanthan gum, cellulose, guar gum, fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and oligo- or polysaccharides.

Consistent intake of fermentable fiber through foods like berries and other fresh fruit, vegetables, whole grains, seeds and nuts is now known to reduce risk of some of the worlds most prevalent diseases obesity, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and numerous gastrointestinal disorders. In this last category are constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, hemorrhoids, Crohns disease, diverticulitis, and colon cancer all disorders of the intestinal tract where fermentable fiber can provide healthful benefits

Insufficient fiber in the diet can complicate defecation. Low-fiber feces are dehydrated and hardened, making them difficult to evacuate defining constipation and possibly leading to development of hemorrhoids or anal fissures.

Fiber and calories

Calories or kilojoules (as used on nutrition labels) are intended to be a measure of how much energy is available from the food source. This energy can be used immediately, for example allowing the body to move during exercise, or to make the heart beat. Energy that is not used immediately is stored as sugars in the short term and later converted to fats, which act as energy reserves.

Energy is extracted from food in a chemical reaction. Because of the principle of conservation of energy, energy can only be extracted when the chemical structure of food particles is changed. Since insoluble fiber particles do not change inside the body , the body should not absorb any energy (or Calories/kilojoules) from them

FDA-approved health claims

The FDA allows producers of foods containing 1.7 g per serving of psyllium husk soluble fiber or 0.75 g of oat or barley soluble fiber as beta-glucans to claim that reduced risk of heart disease can result from their regular consumption

As discussed in FDA regulation 21 CFR 101.81, the daily dietary intake levels of soluble fiber from sources listed above associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease are: 3 g or more per day of beta-glucan soluble fiber from either whole oats or barley, or a combination of whole oats and barley 7 g or more per day of soluble fiber from psyllium seed husk

Soluble fiber fermentation

The American Association of Cereal Chemists has defined soluble fiber this way: the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in

the large intestine

As an example of fermentation, shorter-chain carbohydrates (a type of fiber found in legumes) cannot be digested, but are changed via fermentation in the colon into short-chain fatty acids and gases (which are typically expelled as

flatulence

According to a 2002 journal article, fibers compounds with partial or low fermentability include: cellulose, a polysaccharide hemicellulose, a polysaccharide lignans, a group of phytoestrogens plant waxes resistant starches

Fiber compounds with high fermentability include: beta-glucans, a group of polysaccharides pectins, a group of heteropolysaccharides natural gums, a group of polysaccharides inulins, a group of polysaccharides oligosaccharides, a group of short-chained or simple sugars resistant dextrins

Misconceptions
Fiber does not bind to minerals and vitamins and therefore does not restrict their absorption, but rather evidence exists that fermentable fiber sources improve absorption of minerals, especially calcium. Some plant foods can reduce the absorption of minerals and vitamins like calcium, zinc, vitamin C and magnesium, but this is caused by the presence of phytate (which is also thought to have important health benefits), not by fiber

Chapter 4 Fat

There is about 100 million tons of lipids produced per year through the world Average consumption per person was 15kg in 1993 and raise to 17.2 kg in 1995

Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids

Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride. Left part: glycerol, right part from top to bottom: palmitic acid, oleic
acid, alpha-linolenic acid, chemical formula: C55H98O6

Fats may be either solid or liquid at normal room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related

substances.

Fats or lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas Examples of edible animal fats are lard (pig fat), fish oil, and butter . They are obtained from fats in the milk, meat and under the skin of the animal. Examples of edible plant fats are peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats.

Importance for living organisms

Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function.

Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or bioticreaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively diluteor at least maintain equilibrium ofthe offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body by

such means as excretion, urination

Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms doublebonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length

Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids.

omega-3
n3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as 3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon carbon double bond in the n3 position; that is, the third bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid.

omega-6
n6 fatty acids (popularly referred to as 6 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carboncarbon double bond in the n6 position; that is, the sixth bond from the methyl end of the fatty acid.

Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation

Trans fats may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated but never saturated. Cis and trans are terms that refer to the arrangement of chains of carbon atoms across the double bond. In the cis arrangement, the chains are on the same side of the double bond, resulting in a kink. In the trans arrangement, the chains are on opposite sides of the double bond, and the chain is straight

LIPOPROTEINS
The function of lipoprotein particles is to transport lipids (fats) and cholesterol around the body in the aqueous blood, in which they would not normally dissolve

The lipoprotein particles have hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol and apoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics makes them soluble in the salt water-based blood pool. Triglyceride-fats and cholesterol esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the phospholipid monolayer and the apoproteins

LIPOPROTEINS
is a biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids. Types o lipoproteins: 1. Chylomicrons: carry triacylglycerol (fat) from the intestines to the liver, skeletal muscle, and to adipose tissue. 2. Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) (VLDL) carry (newly synthesised) triacylglycerol from the liver to adipose tissue.

 3. intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL) are intermediate between VLDL and LDL. They are not usually detectable in the blood 4. low-density lipoprotein (LDL) carry cholesterol from the liver to cells of the body. LDLs are sometimes referred to as the "bad cholesterol" lipoprotein. 5. high-density lipoprotein (HDL) collect cholesterol from the body's tissues, and bring it back to the liver. HDLs are sometimes referred to as the "good cholesterol" lipoprotein

Role in disease
Coronary heart disease is a multifactorial disease, but diet is probably the fundamental environmental factor. The pathological basis is atherosclerosis, which takes years to develop.

The characteristic material that accumulates in atherosclerosis is cholesterol ester. This and other lipids in the plaque, such as yellow carotenoid pigments, come from the blood where they are carried on low density lipoprotein (LDL).

Saturated fatty acids raise LDL-cholesterol; these are mostly 12:0 (lauric), 14:0 (myristic), and 16:0 (palmitic). Palmitic may be less potent but is the most abundant of these saturated fatty acids in foods. 18:0 (stearic) has little or no cholesterol-raising effect Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), (with two or more double bonds) lower LDL-cholesterol. The most abundant of these in foods is 18:2 (linoleic) which belongs to the -6 (omega-6 or n minus 6, n6) family of polyunsaturated fatty acids

In the human body, high levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been linked to atherosclerosis, and, by extension, the risk of heart disease and stroke. However, the relative negative impact of raised levels of triglycerides compared to that of LDL:HDL ratios is as yet unknown

Another disease caused by high triglycerides is pancreatitis

The American Heart Association has set guidelines for triglyceride levels:
Level mg/dL <150 150-199 250-499 >500 Level mmol/L <1.69 1.7-2.25 2.26-5.65 >5.65 Interpretation Normal range, low risk borderline High risk Very high risk

Reducing triglyceride levels

To lower triglyceride levels, one may reduce consumption of fats, alcohol and carbohydrates, particularly in rice, and engage in aerobic exercise

The American Heart Association notes that diets high in carbohydrates, with carbohydrates accounting for more than 60% of the total caloric
intake, can increase triglyceride levels

Triglyceride levels are also reduced by omega-3 fatty acids from fish, flax seed oil and other sources. Recommendation in the U.S. is that one ingest up to 3 grams a day of such oils. In Europe the recommendation is for up to 2 grams. However, omega-3 consumption should be balanced with omega-6 fatty acids, ideally in a -6/-3 ratio between 1:1 and 4:1 (i.e., no more than four grams omega-6 for every one of omega-3

Essential fatty acids

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids -omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids - seems also important for health

There are two families of EFAs: -3 (or omega-3 or n3) and -6 (omega-6, n6). Fats from each of these families are essential, as the body can convert one omega-3 to another omega-3, for example, but cannot create an omega-3 from omega-6 or saturated fats

The essential fatty acids start with the short chain polyunsaturated fatty acids : -3 fatty acids: -Linolenic acid or ALA (18:3) -6 fatty acids: Linoleic acid or LA (18:2)

They form the starting point for the creation of longer and more desaturated fatty acids, which are also referred to as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids :

-3 fatty acids:
eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA (20:5) docosahexaenoic acid or DHA (22:6)

-6 fatty acids:
gamma-linolenic acid or GLA (18:3) dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid or DGLA (20:3) arachidonic acid or AA (20:4)

Food sources
Some of the food sources of -3 and -6 fatty acids are fish and shellfish, flaxseed (linseed), hemp oil, soya oil, canola (rapeseed) oil, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, leafy vegetables, and walnuts.

Chapter 5: Protein and amino acids

Proteins, like carbohydrates, contain 16.8 kilojoules (4 kilocalories) per gram as opposed to lipids which contain 37.8 kilojoules (9 kilocalories) and alcohols which contain 29.4 kilojoules (7 kilocalories). The liver, and to a much lesser extent the kidneys, can convert amino acids used by cells in protein biosynthesis into glucose by a process known as gluconeogenesis.

Dietary sources of protein include meats, eggs, nuts, grains, legumes, and dairy products such as milk and cheese. Of the 20 amino acids used by humans in protein synthesis, 11 "nonessential" amino acids can be synthesized in sufficient quantities by the adult body, and are not required in the diet (though there are exceptions for some in special cases). The nine essential amino acids, plus arginine for the young, cannot be created by the body and must come from dietary sources

\
Most animal sources and certain vegetable sources have the complete complement of all the essential amino acids in adequate proportions. However, it is not necessary to consume a single food source that contains all the essential amino acids, as long as all the essential amino acids are eventually present in the diet

Complete proteins, also known as high quality proteins, "contain all the essential amino acids in amounts adequate for human use; it may or may not contain all the others. Generally proteins derived from animal foods (meats, fish, poultry,

cheese, eggs, yogurt, and milk) are complete

Essentiality vs. conditional essentiality in humans

Protein quality assessment

Different proteins have different levels of biological availability (BA) to the human body. Many methods have been introduced to measure protein utilization and retention rates in humans. They include biological value, net protein utilization, and PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score) which was developed by the FDA as an improvement over the Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) method. These methods examine which proteins are most efficiently used by the body. In general they conclude that animal complete proteins that contain all the essential amino acids such as milk, eggs, and meat are of most value to the body

Biological value
measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body. It summarises how readily the broken down protein can be used in protein synthesis in the cells of the organism. A ratio of nitrogen incorporated into the body over nitrogen absorbed gives a measure of

protein 'usability' - the BV.

Net protein utilization

The net protein utilization, or NPU, is the ratio of amino acid converted to proteins to the ratio of amino acids supplied NPU = ((0.16 (24 hour protein intake in grams)) - ((24 hour urinary urea nitrogen) + 2) (0.1 (ideal body weight in kilograms))) / (0.16 (24 hour protein intake in grams))

As a value, NPU can range from 1 to 0, with a value of 1 indicating 100% utilization of dietary nitrogen as protein and a value of 0 an indication that none of the nitrogen supplied was converted to protein

Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)

is a method of evaluating the protein quality based on the amino acid requirements of humans. The PDCAAS rating is a fairly recent evaluation method; it was adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) in 1993 as "the preferred 'best'" method to determine protein quality. These organizations have suggested that other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior.

PDCAAS value of protein

A PDCAAS value of 1 is the highest, and 0 the lowest as the table demonstrates the ratings of common foods below.

whey(1.0) Egg white(1.0) casein(1.0) milk(1.0) soy protein isolate(1.0) beef(0.92) soybean(0.91

tubercules(0.74) vegetables(0.74) legumes in general(0.69) kidney beans(0.68) rye(0.68) cereals and derivatives(0.58) whole wheat(0.54) lentils(0.52) peanuts(0.52) hemp(0.46) seitan(0.25)

Egg whites have been determined to have the standard biological value of 100 (though some sources may have higher biological values), which means that most of the absorbed nitrogen from egg white protein can be retained and used by the body. The biological value of plant protein sources is usually considerably lower than animal sources.For example, corn has a BA of 70 while peanuts have a relatively low BA of 40

Digestion
Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the intestine. The amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded are then absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract

The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibility of many amino acids in humans differ between soy and milk proteins and between individual milk proteins, betalactoglobulin and casein.For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the ileum.

Dietary requirements
According to the recently updated US/Canadian Dietary Reference Intake guidelines, women aged 1970 need to consume 46 grams of protein per day, while men aged 1970 need to consume 56 grams of protein per day to avoid a deficiency. The difference is because men's bodies generally have more muscle mass than those of women, or this may be attributed to weight difference by taking 0.8 g (of protein)/kg of healthy body weight.

If enough energy is not taken in through diet, as in the process of starvation, the body will use protein from the muscle mass to meet its energy needs, leading to muscle wasting over time. If the individual does not consume adequate protein in nutrition, then muscle will also waste as more vital cellular processes (e.g. respiration enzymes, blood cells) recycle muscle protein for their own requirements

Other recommendations suggest 0.8 gram of protein per kilogram of healthy bodyweight per day while other sources suggest that higher intakes of 1-1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of bodyweight for enhanced athletes or those with a

large muscle mass

How much protein needed in a person's daily diet is determined in large part by overall energy intake, as well as by the body's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids. Physical activity and exertion as well as enhanced muscular mass increase the need for protein. Requirements are also greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy or when breastfeeding in order to nourish a baby, or when the body needs to recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an operation.

Deficiency
Protein deficiency is a serious cause of ill health and death in developing countries. Protein deficiency plays a part in the disease kwashiorkor. War, famine, overpopulation and other factors can increase rates of malnutrition and protein deficiency. Protein deficiency can lead to reduced intelligence or mental retardation, see deficiency in proteins, fats, carbohydrates

Kwashiorkor is a virulent form of childhood malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. The presence of edema caused by poor nutrition defines kwashiorkor.The cause of kwashiorkor was thought to be due to insufficient protein consumption alone, however micronutrient and antioxidant deficiencies are now believed to play important roles.

Marasmus is a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by . A child with marasmus looks emaciated. Body weight may be reduced to less than 80% of the normal weight for that height. Marasmus occurrence increases prior to age 1, whereas kwashiorkor occurrence increases after 18 months

Mental retardation is a generalized disorder, characterized by significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors with onset before the age of 18. Once focused almost entirely on cognition, the definition now includes both a component relating to mental functioning and one relating to individuals' functional skills in their environment.

In countries that suffer from widespread protein deficiency, food is generally full of plant fibers, which makes adequate energy and protein consumption very difficult. Protein deficiency is generally caused by lack of total joules, making it an issue of not getting food in total. Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport

Dr. Latham, director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell University claims that malnutrition is a frequent cause of death and disease in third world countries. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) affects 500 million people and kills 10 million annually. In severe cases white blood cell numbers decline and the ability of leukocytes to fight infection decreases

Protein deficiency is relatively rare in developed countries but some people have difficulty getting sufficient protein due to poverty. Protein deficiency can also occur in developed countries in people who are dieting or crash dieting to lose weight, or in older adults, who may have a poor diet. Convalescent people recovering from surgery, trauma, or illness may become protein deficient if they do not increase their intake to support their increased needs

Bob Lanier, a biology professor at Jesuit College Preparatory School of Dallas claims in his that protein deficiency is more common today than statistics might reveal. Lanier provides a variety of data and connects widespread protein deficiency among low income minority families to explain poor academic performance

Excess consumption
The body is unable to store excess protein. Protein is digested into amino acids which enter the bloodstream. Excess amino acids are converted to other usable molecules by the liver in a process called deamination. Deamination converts nitrogen from the amino acid into ammonia which is converted by the liver into urea in the urea cycle. Excretion of urea is performed by the kidneys. These organs can normally cope with any extra workload but if kidney disease occurs, a decrease in protein will often be prescribed

Many researchers think excessive intake of protein forces increased calcium excretion. If there is to be excessive intake of protein, it is thought that a regular intake of calcium would be able to stabilize, or even increase the uptake of calcium by the small intestine, which would be more beneficial in older women

Specific proteins are often the cause of allergies and allergic reactions to certain foods. This is because the structure of each form of protein is slightly different; some may trigger a response from the immune system while others remain perfectly safe. Many people are allergic to casein, the protein in milk; gluten, the protein in wheat and other grains; the particular proteins found in peanuts; or those in shellfish or other seafoods.

Chapter 6 Dietary mineral

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent of the definition is to describe ions, not chemical compounds or actual minerals.

Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the element(s) of interest. Sometimes minerals are ingested as mineral dietary supplements, the most common being iodine in iodized salt.

Essential minerals
Some sources state that sixteen minerals are required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes: Sometimes a distinction is drawn between this category and micronutrients. Most of the essential minerals are of relatively low atomic weight

Potassium (K)
Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water Potassium is the second least dense metal; only lithium is less dense. It is a soft, low-melting solid that can easily be cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but in air it begins to tarnish toward grey immediately

Recommended Dietary Allowances for potassium is 4700mg

Potassium cations in the body

Potassium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid, with their distribution mediated in all animals (but not in all plants) by the so-called Na+/K+-

ATPase pump
Potassium is also important in preventing muscle contraction and the sending of all nerve impulses in animals through action potentials.

Adequate intake
Foods with high sources of potassium include orange juice, potatoes, bananas, avocados, tomatoes, broccoli, soybeans, brown rice, garlic and apricots, although it is also common in most fruits, vegetables and meats.

Insufficiency
Mild hypokalemia is often without symptoms, although it may cause a small elevation of blood pressure,[2] and can occasionally provoke cardiac arrhythmias. Moderate hypokalemia, with serum potassium concentrations of 2.5-3 mEq/L, may cause muscular weakness, myalgia, and muscle cramps (owing to disturbed function of the skeletal muscles), and constipation (from disturbed function of smooth muscles).

Excess
Symptoms are fairly nonspecific and generally include malaise, palpitations and muscle weakness; mild hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening blood tests for a medical disorder, or it only comes to medical attention after complications have developed, such as cardiac arrhythmia or sudden death

Chloride
Chloride is a chemical the human body needs for metabolism (the process of turning food into energy). It also helps keep the body's acid-base balance. The amount of chloride in the blood is carefully controlled by the kidneys.

Recommended Dietary Allowances for chloride is 2300mg

Dietary sources include table salt (sodium chloride, the main source), vegetables, milk, and spinach.

Insufficiency
Patients with low-level, chronic water intoxication are often asymptomatic, but may have symptoms related to the underlying cause. Severe hyponatremia in acute or chronic form may cause osmotic shift of water from the plasma into the brain cells. Typical symptoms include nausea, vomiting, headache and malaise. As the hyponatremia worsens, confusion, diminished reflexes, convulsions, stupor or coma may occur

Excess
Often hyperchloremia does not produce any symptoms. However, hyperchloremia is sometimes associated with excess fluid loss such as vomiting and diarrhea. If the sufferer were to be a diabetic, hyperchloremia could lead to poor control of blood sugar levels, which could cause them to become elevated. Hyperchloremia can be symptomatic with signs of Kussmaul's breathing, weakness, and intense thirst

Sodium
Sodium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid,

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for sodium is 1500mg

Insufficiency
Nausea vomiting headache and malaise . In acute case: Confusion convulsions stupor or coma may occur

Excess
Lethargy Weakness irritability, and edema . With more severe elevations of the sodium level:

seizures and coma may occur

Calcium
Calcium
is an important component of a healthy diet and a mineral necessary for life. "Calcium plays an important role in building stronger, denser bones early in life and keeping bones strong and healthy later in life. Approximately ninety-nine percent of the body's

calcium is stored in the bones and teeth

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for calcium is 1000mg

Sources
Dairy products: milk and cheese, are a wellknown source of calcium. nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame)

blackstrap molasses ;beans; oranges; figs; okra; rutabaga ; broccoli

Insufficiency
Perioral tingling and parasthesia, 'pins and needles' sensation over the extremities of hands and feet. This is the earliest symptom of hypocalcemia. LATER: osteoporosis and rickets.

Excess
Fatigue anorexia nausea vomiting pancreatitis and increased urination

Phosphorus
is a component of bones and energy processing

(ATP) and many other functions.

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for Phosphorus is 700mg

Insufficiency
Muscle dysfunction and weakness. respiratory depression due to respiratory muscle weakness.

Mental status changes. This may range from irritability to gross confusion, delirium , and coma . White cell dysfunction, causing worsening of infections

Magnesium
Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA.

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for Magnesium is 420mg

Insufficiency
Symptoms of magnesium deficiency include: hyperexcitability , muscle weakness and tiredness .

Excess
Weakness, nausea and vomiting Impaired breathing Hypotension

Zinc
required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase. The concentration of zinc in plants varies based on levels of the element in soil. When there is adequate zinc in the soil

Sources
the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat (germ and bran) Zinc is also found in beans ,nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds ,sunflower seeds

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for zinc is 11mg

Insufficiency
Signs of zinc deficiency include hair loss, skin lesions , diarrhea, and wasting of body tissues.

Excess
it causes a severe hemolytic anemia, also liver or kidney damage; vomiting and diarrhoea are possible symptoms

Iron
is required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin.

Sources
Dietary sources include red meat, leafy green vegetables, fish (tuna, salmon), eggs, dried fruits, beans, whole grains, and enriched grains.

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for iron is 8 mg

Insufficiency
Most commonly, people with anemia report nonspecific symptoms of a feeling of weakness, or fatigue, general malaise and sometimes poor concentration. They may also report shortness of breath.

Excess
Organs commonly affected by haemochromatosis (accumulation of iron in the body due to any cause) are the liver, heart and endocrine glands

Iodine
The thyroid gland actively absorbs iodide from the blood to make and release these hormones into the blood, actions which are regulated by a second hormone TSH from the pituitary.

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for iodine

is 150 g

Insufficiency
goiter

Copper
Copper is found in a variety of enzymes, including the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper and zinc). In addition to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological

electron transport

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for

copper is 900 g

Insufficiency
Copper deficiency can cause a syndrome of anemia

Selenium
Selenium also plays a role in the functioning of the thyroid gland by participating as a cofactor for the three known thyroid hormone deiodinases Dietary selenium comes from nuts, cereals, meat, fish, and eggs. Brazil nuts are the richest ordinary dietary source (though this is soildependent, since the Brazil nut does not require high levels of the element for its own needs).

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for

selenium is 55 g

Insufficiency
Selenium deficiency can lead to Keshan disease ) , (which is potentially fatal. The primary symptom of Keshan disease is myocardial necrosis , leading to weakening of the heart. Kashin-Beck disease results in atrophy , degeneration and necrosis of cartilage tissue

Excess
Symptoms of selenosis include a garlic odor on the breath, gastrointestinal disorders, hair loss, sloughing of nails, fatigue, irritability, and neurological damage. Extreme cases of selenosis can result in cirrhosis of the liver,

Molybdenum
The most important use of the molybdenum in living organisms is as a metal at the active site in certain enzymes. the nitrogenase enzyme, which is involved in the terminal step of reducing molecular nitrogen, usually contains molybdenum in the active site

RDA
Recommended Dietary Allowances for molybdenum is 45 g

Insufficiency
The amount of molybdenum required is relatively small, and molybdenum deficiency usually doesn't occur in natural settings. However, it can occur in individuals receiving parenteral nutrition

Chapter 7: Vitamins

A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. The term 'vitamin' first became popular in the early 1800's as a contraction of the words 'vital' and 'mineral', though the actual meaning of the word has developed somewhat since that time

Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).

Vitamin A
Promotes healthy bone growth, vision, reproduction, cell division and specialization and helps regulate the immune system.

Sources
whole milk liver eggs some fortified breakfast cereals carrots sweet potatoes spinach most darkly colored fruit and vegetables.

Vitamin B1
Also known as thiamine is essential in converting foods into energy, helps supports the normal function of the nervous system, muscles and heart and promotes normal growth and development.

It is also thought to help regulate appetite. Present in moderate amounts in all foods, the best sources are whole grains and fortified cereals

Vitamin B2
Also known as riboflavin, it is allied to vitamin B1, and supports energy production, is necessary for red blood cell and antibody production, respiration and regulating human growth and reproduction.

It is essential for healthy skin, nails and hair growth, thyroid activity, healing of wounds and general good health.

Sources
Liver whole grains green leaf vegetables milk yeast cheese oily fish eggs enriched cereals almonds and mushrooms.

Vitamin B3
Also known as niacin is also part of the vitamin B complex that is primarily involved into converting food into energy. Regulates circulation, hormone production, the digestive and nervous systems, promotes healthy skin.

Regular alcohol drinkers and vegetarians should consider taking a B3 (Niacin) supplement as alcohol inhibits niacin absorption and diets lacking protein are likely to be B3 deficient.

Sources
beef liver Pork turkey Chicken veal oily fish beets peanuts strawberries.

Vitamin B6
Also known as pyridoxine is necessary to balance the hormonal changes in women, assists in the growth of new cells and the functioning of the immune system, converting food into energy, and in controlling moods, behavior.

It is involved in red blood cell production, preventing skin problems and in fighting certain heart difficulties.

Sources
Eggs chicken yeast carrots fish liver peas walnuts.

Vitamin B12
Contains cobalt and is also known as cobalamin. The primary functions are to maintain a healthy nervous system and to produce red blood cells

Sufferers from B12 deficiency, which can have mild to severe symptoms, may be unable to absorb the vitamin through normal food intake and will have to take ongoing regular injections to alleviate the problem.

Sources
Meat dairy products eggs

Vitamin C
Absorbic Acid. The human body is unable to store Vitamin C and unless replenished constantly, symptoms, the most commonly known of which is scurvy that can become fatal, will quickly occur. It is important in forming collagen that gives structure to bones, cartilage, muscle and blood vessels and in maintaining bones and teeth, and in the absorption of iron.

Sources are most fruits and vegetables served raw if possible, Vitamin C dissolves in water so if the food must be cooked use the minimal amount of water by steaming or microwaving for as short a time as possible.

Vitamin D
The source of this vitamin is best known as being from sunlight, or more accurately, as being made in the body by exposure to UV rays. It promotes the calcium and phosphorous that are vital in forming and maintaining strong bones. It may also be involved in regulating cell growth and maintaining a healthy immune system.

Sources
Exposure to sunlight (which should be carefully limited) is the principal source most dairy products contain only limited amounts better sources include oily fish, fortified cereals, eggs, and beef liver.

Vitamin E
A is a powerful source of anti oxidants and as such acts as a barrier to poisons and diseases that can damage the body. It is also recognized as being involved in immune system function, DNA repair, the protection of blood cells, the nervous system, muscles and the eye retinas from free radical damage.

Sources
Nuts green vegetables (spinach, broccoli, sprouts) Eggs whole meal products soya beans vegetable oils and particularly olive oil.

Vitamin K
This vitamin plays an essential role in the production of coagulation proteins, meaning that it is responsible for regulating the ability of the blood to clot.

A deficiency may occur in any age group, but is more often found in infants. Excessive bleeding is the principal symptom.

Sources
green vegetables asparagus oats oils, such as olive oil

Water
Essential to the survival of all organisms, water has historically been an important and lifesustaining drink to humans. water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes.

the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 liters The United States Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests 2.0 liters per day

Water quality and contaminants

Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites.

In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water

Water treatment
UV radiation Chlorination Ozone Heating Filtration

Requirements
Humans can survive for several weeks without food, but for only a few days without water. The exact amount of water a human needs is highly individual, as it depends on the condition of the subject, the amount of physical exercise, and on the environmental temperature and humidity

In the US, the reference daily intake (RDI) for water is 3.7 litres per day for human males older than 18, and 2.7 litres for human females older than 18 including water contained in food, beverages, and drinking water. It is a common misconception that everyone should drink two litres (68 ounces, or about eight 8-oz glasses) of water per day and is not supported by scientific research.

Water intoxication (also known as hyperhydration or water poisoning) is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside of safe limits by overconsumption of water. Normal, healthy (both physically and nutritionally) individuals have little reason to worry about accidentally consuming too much water

Chapter 8: effect of processing in nutritional value, Metabolism of Nutrients and Energy Balance

Healthy diet
A healthy diet is one that helps maintain or improve health. It is important for the prevention of many chronic health risks such as: obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and cancer A healthy diet involves consuming appropriate amounts of all nutrients, and an adequate amount of water. Nutrients can be obtained from many different foods, so there are a wide variety of diets that may be considered healthy diets.

Processed foods
Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled.

These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, and all appear to alter the original nutritional contents of food.

Food processing techniques like: heat treatment and separation can cause several changes in foods like: Loss of nutritional value like vitamins and minerals Loss of antioxidants

Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing.

In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized
fats and trans fatty acids

dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin

thiamine, causing beri-beri.

Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 1800s in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heattreated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.

As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has

contributed to this development.

In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more

processed foods.

Thus the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive but nutritionally superior whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation

Healthy eating pyramid

guide developed by the Harvard School of Public Health, suggesting how much of each food category one should eat each day. The healthy eating pyramid is intended to provide a better eating guide than the widespread food guide

pyramid created by the USDA.

Food groups
In general terms, the healthy eating pyramid recommends the following intake of different food groups each day, although exact amounts of calorie intake depends on sex, age, and lifestyle:

Daily exercise and weight control!!

At most meals, whole grain foods including oatmeal, whole-wheat bread, and brown rice;1 piece or 4 oz (~113.4g). Plant oils, including olive oil, canola oil, soybean oil, corn oil, and sunflower seed oil; 2 oz. (~56.7g) per day Vegetables, in abundance 3 or more each day. Each serv. 6 oz (~170g).

2-3 servings of fruits; Ea. serv. = 1 piece of fruit or 4 oz (~113.4g). 1-3 servings of nuts, or legumes; Ea. serv. = 2 oz (~56.7g). 1-2 servings of dairy or calcium supplement; Ea serv. = 8 oz. (~226.8g) non fat or 4 oz. (~113.4g) of whole. 1-2 servings of poultry, fish, or eggs; Ea. serv = 4 oz (~113.4g) or 1 egg. Sparing use of white rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta and sweets; Sparing use of red meat and butter.

Weight assessment
assessment of overweight involves using three key measures: body mass index (BMI) waist circumference, and risk factors for diseases and conditions associated with obesity

The BMI is a measure of your weight relative to your height and waist circumference measures abdominal fat. Combining these with information about your additional risk factors yields your risk for developing obesity-associated diseases.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

BMI is a reliable indicator of total body fat, which is related to the risk of disease and death. The score is valid for both men and women but it does have some limits. The limits are:

It may overestimate body fat in athletes and others who have a muscular build. It may underestimate body fat in older persons and others who have lost muscle mass.

BMI= mass/(Height)2
Mass in Kilograms Height in meter

Waist Circumference
Determine your waist circumference by placing a measuring tape snugly around your waist. It is a good indicator of your abdominal fat which is another predictor of your risk for developing risk factors for heart disease and other diseases. This risk increases with a waist measurement of over 40 inches in men and over 35 inches in women

* Disease risk for type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and CVD. + Increased waist circumference can also be a marker for increased risk even in persons of normal weight.

Chapter 9 Introduction to Chronic Diseases of Lifestyle, Obesity, and Diabetes

Introduction
increased consumption of energy-dense diets high in fat, particularly saturated fat, and low in unrefined carbohydrates. These patterns are combined with a decline in energy expenditure that is associated with a sedentary lifestyle motorized transport, labour-saving devices in the home, the phasing out of physically demanding manual tasks in the workplace

Because of these changes in dietary and lifestyle patterns, chronic NCDs including obesity, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension and stroke, and some types of cancer are becoming increasingly significant causes of disability and premature death in both developing and newly developed countries, placing additional burdens on already overtaxed national health budgets.

Importance of physical activity

Energy expenditure through physical activity is an important part of the energy balance equation that determines body weight. A decrease in energy expenditure through decreased physical activity is likely to be one of the major factors contributing to the global epidemic of overweight and obesity.

Physical activity has great influence on body composition on the amount of fat, muscle and bone tissue.

To a large extent, physical activity and nutrients share the same metabolic pathways and can interact in various ways that influence the risk and pathogenesis of several chronic diseases.

Cardiovascular fitness and physical activity have been shown to reduce significantly the effects of overweight and obesity on health. Physical activity and food intake are both specific and mutually interacting behaviors that are and can be influenced partly by the same measures and policies.

Lack of physical activity is already a global health hazard and is a prevalent and rapidly increasing problem in both developed and developing countries, particularly among poor people in large cities.

Chronic diseases
The burden of chronic diseases is rapidly increasing worldwide. It has been calculated that, in 2001, chronic diseases contributed approximately 60% of the 56.5 million total reported deaths in the world and approximately 46% of the global burden of disease

The proportion of the burden of NCDs is expected to increase to 57% by 2020. Almost half of the total chronic disease deaths are attributable to cardiovascular diseases; obesity and diabetes are also showing worrying trends, not only because they already affect a large proportion of the population, but also because they have started to appear earlier in life

The diets people eat, in all their cultural variety, define to a large extent peoples health, growth and development. Risk behaviours, such as tobacco use and physical inactivity, modify the result for better or worse. All this takes place in a social, cultural, political and economic environment that can aggravate the health of populations unless active measures are taken to make the environment a healthpromoting one.

The continuity of the life course is seen in the way that both undernutrition and overnutrition (as well as a host of other factors) play a role in the development of chronic disease. The effects of man-made and natural environments (and the interaction between the two) on the development of chronic diseases are increasingly recognized

Chapter 10 Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) includes dysfunctional conditions of the heart, arteries, and veins that supply oxygen to vital life-sustaining areas of the body like the brain, the heart itself, and other vital organs. If oxygen doesn't arrive the tissue or organ will die

Ischemic Heart Disease is the technical term for obstruction of blood flow to the heart. In general this results because excess fat or plaque deposits are narrowing the veins that supply oxygenated blood to the heart. Excess buildup of fat or plaque are respectively termed arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis. Equally significant would be inadequate oxygen flow to the brain, which causes a stroke