Atmospheric Exposure

Dr. Mohammed Abdus Salam abdus@umk.edu.my

Atmospheric Composition

Details of Atmospheric Composition

Nitrogen - 78.084% Oxygen - 20.95% Argon - 0.934% Carbon Dioxide - 0.036% Neon - 0.0018% Helium - 0.0005% Methane - 0.00017% Hydrogen - 0.00005% Nitrous Oxide - 0.00003% Ozone - 0.000004%

Conventional Pollutants
U. S Clean Air Act designated seven major (Conventional or criteria) pollutants for which maximum ambient air levels area mandated Carbon Oxide Sulfur oxide Nitrogen oxide Particulate Matter Metals and Halogen Volatile Organic Compounds

Emission from Motor Vehicles

Emission From Motor Vehicles

Emission from motor vehicles have become a major problem as many consumers does not know about the effects of motor vehicle emission. According to US EPA, driving a car is the single most polluting thing and emits tons of pollutants into the air everyday.

In urban areas, motor vehicles are the single largest contributors of ground level ozone, a major component of smog.

Corbon Oxides
Predominant form of carbon in the air is carbon dioxide. - Increasing levels due to human activities - Annual emission: 7-8 billion metric tons Carbon monooxide is a colorless, orderless, toxic gas produced by imcomplete fuel combustion. - Annual Emission: 1 billion metric tons

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fetal air poisoning in many countries. 60% of carbon monoxide is caused by on road vehicles. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. Exposure of carbon monoxide damage the human thinking capacity.

Nitrogen Compounds
Nitrogen oxides are reactive gases formed when nitrogen is heated above 650 degree centrigates in the presence of oxygen, or when nitrogen compounds are oxidized. Annual Emission: 230 million metric tons

NOx
Mono nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 react with ammonia, moisture and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. This small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, cause premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of this small particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as emphysema, bronchitis and also may aggravate existing heart disease.

Sulfur Compounds
Natural sources of sulfur in the atmosphere include evaporation from sea spray, volcanic fumes, and organic compounds. Predominant form of anthropogenic sulfur is sulfur dioxide from fossil fuel combustion. Annual Emission: 114 million metric tons

Sulfur Dioxide
Sources: Combustion of fuel containing sulfur -- mostly coal and oil. Also produced during metal smelting and other industrial processes.

Health effects of respiratory exposure to sulpher dioxide

Exposure limits (ppm) Health Effects

1-5

Threshold for respiratory response in healthy individuals upon exercise or deep breathing

3-5

Gas is easily noticeable. Fall in lung function at rest and increased airway resistance

Increased airway resistance in healthy individuals

6 10 10-15 20+ 150

Immediate irritation of eyes, nose and throat Worsening irritation of eyes, nose and throat Threshold of toxicity for prolonged exposure Paralysis or death occurs after extended exposure Maximum concentration that can be withstood for a few minutes by healthy individuals

Health Effects: SO2

High concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) can result in breathing problems with asthmatic children and adults who are active outdoors. Short-term exposure has been linked to wheezing, chest tightness and shortness of breath. Other effects associated with longer-term exposure to sulfur dioxide, in conjunction with high levels of particulate soot, include respiratory illness, alterations in the lungs' defenses and aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease.

Environmental Effects of SO2

Sulfur dioxide is the major precursors of acid rain, which has acidified soils, lakes and streams, accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments, and reduced visibility. Sulfur dioxide also is a major precursor of fine particulate soot, which poses a significant health threat.

SOx and NOx pollution

Particulate matter
Atmospheric aerosols solid or liquid Respirable particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers are among most dangerous. Anthropogenic particulate emissions amount to about 362 million metric tons annually.

Particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5

The health effects of inhaling particulate matter have been widely studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death.

Because of tiny size, they can easily penetrate the deepest part of the lungs. About 1% of all PM10 and 2% of all PM2.5 emissions came from the exhaust of on-road motor vehicles.

Aggravated air pollution - industry

Aggravated air pollution industry II

Transportation related causes of air pollution

Persistent Organic Pollutants

Humans are exposed daily to numerous chemicals that can harm their health Many harmful organic compounds are stable in the environment (atmosphere, water, soil, food chain) for long periods Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Characterised by stability, mobility, and bioaccumulation - Harmful to human health and produce ecological damage Stockholm Convention (May 2001): over 90 countries promised to reduce or eliminate the production, use, and release of 12 key POPs the dirty dozen.
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12 Key POPs the dirty dozen

The Dirty Dozen are produced for use as insecticides, fungicides, chemical additives, or are inadvertently produced during combustion. A biocide is a substance toxic to varying degrees to life forms: Either synthesised deliberately to target and kill specific organisms general name pesticide Or may be inadvertently produced Pesticides: insecticide, bactericide, fungicide, herbicide A pesticide designed to eliminate all types of living organisms is called a fumigant or sterilant

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POP
Aldrin Chlordane

Use
Crop insecticide (corn, cotton) Crop insecticide (vegetables, citrus, cotton, potatoes) Crop insecticide (cotton)

Structure

DDT (dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane) Dieldrin Endrin

Crop insecticide (cotton, corn) Crop insecticide (cotton, grains)

Heptachlor

Insecticide (termites and soil insects)

Hexachlorobenzene Mirex Toxaphene PCBs

Fungicide for seed treatment Insecticide (termites, fire ants) Insecticide (livestock, crops) Industrial chemical (paint and plastic additive) Unintentionally produced during combustion Unintentionally produced during combustion

Dioxins

Furans

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DDT
Chemical stability: DDT degrades to DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene)

DDE is less toxic than DDT but more resilient in the environment
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DDT
DDT has a broad spectrum of activity. It was banned in several countries in the 1970s because of ecological considerations Still used extensively to reduce insect-transmitted diseases:
yellow fever, sleeping sickness, typhus, malaria and others

Persistent in the environment and resistant to complete degradation by microorganisms

Photodegradation can occur

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DDT Environmental Levels and Human Exposure

Air: when DDT is sprayed, any that fails to reach its target can drift away. Vaporisation from treated fields can be detected for more than 6 months after application. It can drift up to 1000km Environmental levels: Nonagricultural areas: < 1 2.4 ng m-3 Agricultural communities: 1 22 ng m-3 Communities with anti-mosquito programmes: up to 8.5 g m-3

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DDT Environmental Levels and Human Exposure

Human exposure: Can affect the nervous system. Acute intoxication by DDT can lead to symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, paraesthsia, dizziness, confusion, tremors and in severe cases convulsions

All the symptoms are rare

No evidence that DDT has reproductive or teratogenic effects All epidemiological studies in humans have indicated that DDT is not carcinogenic

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