More Non-Ideal Properties

Bias Current Offset Voltage Saturation Applications of saturation

Bias Current

All op-amps draw a small constant d.c. bias currents at their inputs. Typical value for a 741 is around 100 nA. This is only notable when very high impedance sources are used. In such cases, an alternative op-amp with lower bias current should be used. NB. Bias current is separate to input impedance. It is equivalent to a current source in parallel with the input impedance.

Offset Voltage

When both input voltages are equal, the output should be zero. Actually it probably wont be due to an offset voltage between the inputs. Typically, this is around 2 mV. This isnt much but is magnified so much by the opamp gain that it will probably saturate. Offset voltage is automatically compensated by a negative feedback network. Can be a problem for precision comparator applications.

D.C. Equivalent Circuit

Both the offset voltage and bias current are d.c. A.C. operation is not affected by them (they just add an offset) Negative feedback reduces the effect of both Steps can be taken to reduce them (further reading)

Saturation

VOUT cannot exceed the supply voltages. In fact, typically VOUT can only get to within about 1.5 V of the supplies.
VOUT

VOUT

Desired Output W aveform

Actual Output Wa veform

Consequences of Saturation

Unwanted when:

Linear amplification was required A clipping effect is required (e.g. distortion effects popular with guitarists) The op-amp is used as a comparator

Wanted when:

Essential when:

Non-Linear Op-Amp Applications

Applications using saturation

Comparators Comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger) Oscillators

Applications using active feedback components

Log, antilog, squaring etc. amplifiers Precision rectifier

Comparators
VOUT
Id eal res pons e VOU T = A VIN 0

P rac tic al res pons e (c lipp ed )

VIN

If A0 is large, practical response can be approximated as : VIN > 0 V+ > V- VOUT = +VSAT VIN < 0 V+ < V- VOUT = -VSAT

Microcap Demo 1

Hysteresis

A comparator with hysteresis has a safety margin. One of two thresholds is used depending on the current output state.

V
Upper threshold

time
Lower threshold

Schmitt Trigger

The Schmitt trigger is an op-amp comparator circuit featuring hysteresis. The inverting variety is the most commonly used.

Schmitt Trigger Analysis

Switching occurs when: R1 VIN = V = V+ = VOUT R1 + R2 But, VOUT = VSAT VTHRESH = VSAT R1 R1 + R2

Microcap Demo 2

Input-Output Relationship
(i) VOUT +VSAT VOUT +VSAT -VTHRESH 0 -VSAT +VTHRESH VIN -VSAT 0 VIN -VSAT -VTHRESH 0 +VTHRESH VIN (ii) (iii) VOUT +VSAT

VIN increasing

VIN decreasing

(i) & (ii) combined

Asymmetrical Thresholds

We dont always want the threshold levels to be symmetrical around 0 V. More general configuration features an arbitrary reference level.

Analysis
Using Kirchoffs current law: VOUT V+ VREF V+ + =0 R2 R1 VOUT VREF V+ V+ R1 + R2 + = + = V+ R2 R1 R2 R1 R1 R2 V+ = VOUT R1 R2 + VREF R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Realising VREF
R1 R2 + VREF Solving VTHRESH = VSAT R1 + R2 R1 + R2 often gives a value of VREF that isnt available. But,

Providing R1 = r1 || r2 and VREF

r2 = VS r1 + r2

Summary

Saturation of op-amps is exploited by comparator circuits. Their function is to decide whether an input voltage is greater or less than a reference level. Hysteresis is often applied to provide some resilience against noise.