1.

Superconductivity
T
T

Superconductor
Pure metal
impure metal
For pure metals:
K 0 T when 0 = =
For impure metals:
K 0 T when
0
= =
c
T
For Super conductors:
c
T T K to 0 T between 0 = = =
T
c
= critical temperature of the material.
T
c
(Hg) = 4.18 K ( = 0)
At T = 4.20 K, R = 0.08 O
At T = 4.18 K, R = 3 x 10
-6
O
Thus dc electrical resistivity in the superconducting phase transition
vanishes at Tc. The transition takes place a very sharply.
T
c
is characteristic of a material as
T
c
for Pb = 7K; Nb = 9 K; Nb
3
Ge = 23 K
For YBa
2
Cu
2
)
3
= 123 K (High Tc superconducting ceramic)
2. Properties of a Superconductor
1. Persistent current
2. Effect of magnetic field Meissner effect
any value =
>
H
Tc T
c
H H
Tc T
<
<
c
H H
Tc T
>
<
If material is paced in a magnetic field
M H B
0 0
+ =
At T < Tc, B = 0 , therefore M H 0
0 0
+ =
1
H
M
= = _
Thus, characteristic of a superconductor, below critical temperature.
0 =
1 = _
Perfect conductor
Perfect diamagnetic
1.
2.
H
c
H
M
c
T T <
_
1
T
c
T T =
0 =
0 B=
superconductor
Normal
conductor
3. Critical magnetic field vs. temperature
Nb
Pb
Hg
T
) (T H
c
0
K 18 . 4
For temperature between T
= 0 to T = Tc, the critical
magnetic field follows
following parabolic law:
] ) ( 1 )[ 0 ( ) (
2
Tc
T
H T H
c c
=
If T = T
c
, H
c
(T
c
) = 0
Where Hc(0) is the critical field at T = 0 K, this is the maximum
value for applied magnetic field.
Due to Meissner effect for fields less than H
c
the magnetic flux
density inside the superconductor vanishes. The magnetization M
is produced by the surface currents which circulate in a direction
so as to cancel the external flux at every point inside the
superconductor.
4. Type of superconductors
2. Type-II superconductors
Type-I: Pb, Tc = 7 K, H
c
= 4.8x10
4
Amp/ m
Type-II: Pb + 2% by weight Nb, H
c1
= 3x10
4
Amp/ m and H
c2
= 8x10
4
Amp/m
Pb + 20% by weight Nb, H
c1
= 0.6x10
4
Amp/ m and H
c2
= 30x10
4
Amp/m
Mixed
5. Isotope effect
o
o

M T
c
Where o is isotope effect coefficient. It depends on material and
its value ranges from 0.4 0.5.
Examples: Hg (199) has Tc = 8.185 K while that Hg
(203) has Tc = 4.14 K
2
1

M T
c
o
.
2
1
const T M
c
=

1
2
2
1
2
1
) (
c
c
T
T
M
M
=
iR V =
A
l
i V

=
A
i
l
V
=
J E =
For a superconductor: =0, therefore,
0 = E
0 , 0 , 0 = = = B E
t
B
E
c
c
= V


0 =
c
c

t
B

. const B =

Thus Meissner effect and Maxwells equations are inconsistent.
Therefore Maxwells equation cant explain superconductivity.
6. Londons Equation
Assumptions of Londons Theory:
The conduction electrons in superconducting materials are
classified in two categories; (1) Super-electrons and (2) Normal
electrons.
(i) At T = 0 K, all electrons are super-electrons.
(ii) As the temperature increases between T = 0 to T = T
c
, the
proportion of normal electrons increases.
(iii) At T > Tc, all electrons behave as normal electrons
The super-electrons are not scattered by thermal vibrations in the
lattice of the superconducting metal while normal electrons are
always scattered by vibrating lattice.
Let us consider that there are n conduction electrons per unit
volume in a superconducting metal. Out of this, let n
s
be super-
electron density and n
n
be normal electron density. Thus,
n s
n n n + =
The total current density may be written as,
n s
J J J + =
s s s
ev n J =
Here, J
s
and J
n
are current densities due to super-electrons and
normal electrons. v
s
is the velocity of super-electrons.
(6.1)
Under the action of applied electric field, E, the super-electrons
follow the equation of motion:
eE
dt
dv
m
s
=
m
eE
dt
dv
s
=
Differentiating equation (6.1)
dt
dv
e n
dt
dJ
s
s
s
=
m
eE
e n
dt
dJ
s
s
=
m
E e n
dt
dJ
s s
2
= (6.2)
This is Londons first equation. Taking curl of this equation we have
m
E e n
dt
J d
s s

2
V = V
( ) ( ) E
m
e n
J
dt
d
s
s

V = V
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= V
t
B
m
e n
J
dt
d
s
s

2
) ( ( Since, )
t
B
E
c
c
= V


According to Maxwells equation,
s
J B

0
= V
Taking curl of both sides
( ) ( )
s
J B

V = V V
0

Taking derivative w. r. t. time

( ) | | ( )
s
J
dt
d
B
dt
d

V = V V
0

( ) | |
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= V - V V
t
B
m
e n
B B
dt
d
s

2
0
2

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= V
t
B
m
e n
B
dt
d
s

2
0
2

(Since displacement D =0
inside a superconductor)
2
2
L
B
B

= V
Where,
2
0
2
e n
m
s
L

L
is known as Londons penetration depth.
( ) B
m
e n
B
s

2
0
2
= V
} }
= V
B
B L
B
B
dt B dt B
0 0
2
2
1

} }
= V
B
B L
B
B
B d B d
0 0
2
2
1

(6.3)
2
1
2
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e n
m
s
L

Where B
0
denote the magnetic flux at t = 0.
) (
1
) (
0
2
0
2
B B B B
L

= V

This equation gives a particular solution B = B

0
, i.e. magnetic flux
within the metal will be constant when metal makes a transition from
normal to superconducting state. This is against the Meissner effect
which requires that B = 0 in the superconducting state.
Then, London proposed that equation (6.3) may be replaced by
2
2
L
B
B

= V
(6.4)
From this equation if B = B
0
,
0
2
= V B

But,
0
2
=
L
B

Thus other solution B = 0 satisfy the above relation which in turn

satisfies Meissner effect.
General solution of equation (6.4) is
L
x
z z
e B x B

= ) 0 ( ) (
x
z
B
superconductor Vacuum
0
At x =
L
,
(supposing that applied field is
in z-direction).
e
B
x B
z
z
) 0 (
) ( =
Thus
L
is a distance from the surface
of the metal in which the field decays to
1/e of its value outside the metal.
2
1
2
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e n
m
s
L

Substituting m = 9.1x10
-31
kg,
0
= 4t x 10
-7
H/m, e = 1.6 x 10
-19
C and
n
s
= 10
28
/m
3
, we have,
2
1
2 19 28 7
31
) 10 6 . 1 ( 10 10 4
10 1 . 9
|
|
.
|

\
|


=

A m
L
532 10 32 . 5
8
= =

7. Variation of
L
with temperature
Concentration of super-electrons (n
s
) varies with temperature and
follows the equation
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
4
1 ) 0 ( ) (
c
s s
T
T
n T n
(7.1)
Where n
s
(0) is no. of super-
electrons at 0 K. At T = 0, n
s
(0) = n
while at T = T
c
, n
s
= 0 and n
n
= n
) (T n
s
0 = T
T
c
T
Super-
electrons
Normal
electrons
Substituting n
s
in the equation for
L
,

L
is given as
2
1
2
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e n
m
s
L

2
1
2
4
0
1 ) 0 (
) (
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
e
T
T
n
m
T
c
s
L

Let us define,
2
1
2
4
0
1 ) 0 (
) (
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
e
T
T
n
m
T
c
s
L

2
1
2
0
) 0 (
) 0 (
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
e n
m
s
L

Then,
2
1
4
1
) 0 (
) (
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
c
L
L
T
T
T

Thus At T = T
c
,
L
= and
at T = 0,
L
=
L
(0)
c
T
) (T
L

) 0 (
L

T
At T = T
c
,
L
= means field has completely penetrated inside
the material and therefore the materials is no longer a
superconductor. The superconductivity is destroyed at T
c
.
8. Variation of specific heat of superconductor with temperature
The specific heat C
v
for a normal metal at low temperature
consists of two contributions, C
v
e
from electrons in the conduction
band and C
v
l
, from the lattice. Thus
3
bT aT C C C
l
v
e
v v
+ = + =
Electronic
specific heat
Lattice specific heat
1. For normal metals, the electronic sp. heat increases linearly
with temperature and decreases to 0 at 0K.
2. For superconductors, the
electronic sp. heat shows a rapid
jump at T
c
and decreases non-
linearly with the temperature and
becomes 0 at 0K.
e
v
C
c
T
T
Normal
superconductor
3. The behavior of C
v
e
is found to be exponential in the nature i.e.
The exponential behavior of the variation of specific heat with
temperature suggests the existence of an energy gap in the
excitation spectrum of the conduction electrons in the metal.
E
F
E
) (E N
Empty
Filled
E
F
E
) (E N
Empty
Filled
A 2
Metal Superconductor
T k
e
v
B
Ae C
A

=
1. In normal metal all electrons below Fermi level are normal
electrons and they can move freely into the conduction region by
application of small potential.
2. For superconductors, below the Fermi level some electrons are
normal electrons and some are super electrons and at the Fermi
level there is an energy gap. This gap is only for normal electrons
and not for super electrons. Super-electrons can cross into the
conduction band without applying minimum energy equivalent to
the energy gap.
3. The energy gap also varies with temperature.
c
T
A
T
Figure: Variation of superconductor
energy gap with temperature.
2
1
) 1 ( 74 . 1
) 0 (
) (
c
T
T T
=
A
A
5 . 3
) 0 ( 2
ally experiment ~
A
c B
T k
9. BCS (Bardeen-CooperSchrieffer) Theory
Under certain situations, the electrons may attract each other. If
they attract then they form a pair of two electrons each known as
Cooper pair.
Cooper pair is new particle with a mass 2m and charge 2e.
Best condition for the formation of Cooper pair is
(i) The two electrons have equal and opposite momentum and
(ii) Equal and opposite spin.

Potential energy of the two electron system consists of two terms :
(i) Repulsive term (V
r
) due to columbic repulsion between two
charges
(ii) Attractive term (V
ph
) in the superconducting phase.
Thus total potential energy is
ph r
V V V + =
ph
V
r
ke
+ =
2
Attractive
Attractive
If
0 > V
This will mean that net attraction between two
electrons and their energy is lowered. Under this
condition Cooper pairs will be formed.
If
0 < V
In this condition, repulsion will dominate and
Cooper pairs will not be formed and both
electrons will remain separated.
Binding energy (Energy Gap):
It is the energy required to break the Cooper pair into two
separated electrons: If,
E
c
= Energy of Cooper pairs and E
F
= Energy of free state, then,
eV E E E
F c g
4
10

~ =
Mechanism of attraction between two electrons:
(i) The first electron e
1
distorts the ion and creates a dipole in it
i.e. it polarizes the ion.
(ii) Suppose a nearby second electron sees this distorted ion, it
gets attracted towards this ion.
(iii) The net result is that the two electrons e
1
and e
2
come closer
to each other and their energy is lowered.
(iv) They from pairs.
Why superconductivity in materials:
Resistance in a material arises due to scattering of electrons from
imperfections/ impurities/ thermal vibrations.
In superconductor, we have Cooper pairs therefore net momentum
of the pair is 0 (because momentum is equal and opposite).
Therefore, de-Broglie wavelength of Cooper pairs which is given as
p
h
=
will be very large. Thus for Cooper pairs,
>> a (size of the obstacle)
In this situation, the scattering of the Cooper pairs would be
negligible by imperfections/ impurities/ thermal vibrations and
hence = 0.
- At T=0, all electrons in superconducting material will form Cooper
pairs and hence conductivity would be maximum because of no
scattering.
- As T increases, some Cooper pairs are formed and some become
normal electrons, while Cooper pairs will not scatter, but normal
electrons will scatter, there fore = 0.
- As T increases, some Cooper pairs are formed and some become
normal electrons, while Cooper pairs will not scatter, but normal
electrons will scatter, there fore = 0.
- At T = T
c
, all electrons are normal electrons. No Cooper pairs are
formed and so scattering will be there for all normal electrons and
hence will be large.
10. Coherence Length
The distance up to which the motion of Cooper pairs remain correlated
to give superconductivity is known as coherence length ().
Since the electron states responsible for superconductivity lie within
k
B
T
c
of the Fermi surface, by uncertainty principle
~ = A t t ) (
c B
T k E
If velocity of electrons at Fermi surface is v
F
, the wave function must
extend over a distance = v
F
t, Thus,
c B
F
T k
v
=
c B
T k

~ t
A
=
2
F
v

gap Energy = A
velocity Fermi
F
= v
m) 10 (
-6
~
0K at 5 . 3 2 parameter gap
0 c B
T k = A
The persistent current in a superconductor can be accounted for through
the application of quantum law, according to which the persistent current
in a superconducting ring is a consequence of the quantization of the
electronic states. As a consequence of which the flux in a closed
superconducting loop is also quantized.
Free electron wave function is given as
r k
Ae

.
=
11. Flux Quantization
Magnetic flux within the
superconducting loop is quantized and
is given as
e
n
2

= |
weber 10 07 . 2
2
15
= x
e

Flux Compression
Self study: Critical Current
The minimum current that can be passed in a sample without destroying
its superconductivity is called critical current I
c
.
12. Josephson effect in superconductors:
Consider two normal metals (N) separated by an insulator junction.
N
I
N
Al Al
If thickness of the junction >> 100 , no conduction electron will
pass through this junction from metal 1 to metal 2. But,
If thickness of the junction s 10 , then electron from metal 1 will
start tunneling through the insulator to the metal 2. This is called
quantum tunneling.
I
V
NN
I
If one metal is changed by a superconductor then V-I characteristic
changes.
S
I
N
I
V
This is known as Giever Tunneling.
e
A
NN
I
NS
I
K T 0 =
If both metals are replaced by superconductors, the
1
S
I
2
S
I
V
1
V
2
V
Even without application of any potential Cooper pairs from one
superconducting materials may tunnel through the insulating
junction to the other superconducting materials.
e
V
2 1
1
A A
=
e
V
2 1
2
A + A
=
A
1
and A
2
are the energy gap for first and
second superconductors respectively.
Fig.: Characteristic
curve of S-I-S
NN
I
SS
I
K T 0 >
1
S
I
2
S
Let us define a system consisting of an ensemble of Cooper pairs
by a wave function
) (
) (
r i
e r
u
+ = +
Where |(r) represents phase of the Cooper pairs, and
2
) (r n + =
There is tendency of Cooper pairs in material 1 to equalize phase
of Cooper pairs in material B and therefore they move from material
1 to 2 and give rise to current even without application of any
external voltage.
r I I sin
0
=
2 1
u u = u
DC Josephson effect
is density of Cooper pairs.
Phase difference
Suppose we apply an external potential V, Cooper pairs may
absorb or emit energy in quantum units of 2 eV.
t
eV

2
0
+ =u u
0 V when ) (
2 1 0
= u u = u
Due to this phase change

eV
dt
d 2
=
u
The current oscillates with a frequency

eV 2
This is AC Josephson effect
10. High Tc superconductors
90K
7 3 2
O Cu YBa
Fullerenes: C
60
compounds with alkali atom mixture.
11. Applications
1. Superconducting magnets.
2. Superconducting power transmission.