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Chapter 9

dc-ac Inverters
Outlines
Introduction
Basic Block Diagram of Dc-Ac Inverter
Basic Half-Bridge Inverter Circuits
Resistive Load
Inductive-Resistive Load
Full-Bridge Inverter
Approximate Analysis
Generalized Analysis
Harmonic Reduction
Pulse-Width Modulation
Equal-Pulse (Uniform) PWM
Sinusoidal PWM
Three-Phase Inverters
Current-Source Inverters
Introduction
Power electronic circuits that produce variable-frequency ac outputs voltages
from dc sources.
Depending on whether the source is dc or ac, power electronics circuits with
ac output voltages are referred to as dc-ac inverters or ac-ac cycloconverters.
If the output voltage frequency is different from the source frequency , the
converter is called an ac voltage controller.
Dc-to-ac inverters (also known as static inverters) use fixed dc sources to
produce symmetrical ac output voltages at fixed or variable frequency or
magnitude.
Inverting circuits are used to deliver power from a dc source to a passive or
active ac load employing conventional SCRs or gate-driven semiconductor
devices such as GTOs, IGBTs, and MOSFETs.
Todays inverters can operate in wide ranges of regulated output voltage and
frequency with reduced harmonics.
Dc-to-ac inverters are used in applications where the only source available is a
fixed dc source and the system requires an ac load such as an uninterruptible
power supply (UPS).
Applications where dc-to-ac inverters are used include aircraft power supplies,
variable-speed ac motor drives, and lagging or leading var generation.
Basic Block Diagram of dc-ac Inverters
Figure 9.1 shows a typical block diagram of a power electronic circuit utilizing a dc-to-ac
inverter with input and output filters used to smooth the output ac signal.
The feedback circuit is used to sense the output voltage and compare it with a sinusoidal
reference signal as shown in Fig. 9.1.
The control objective is producing a controllable ac output from an uncontrollable dc
voltage source.
The load is broadly classified as either passive or active. If the load consists of impedance
only (i.e. passive), then its time domain response is determined by the nature of the load and
cannot be controlled externally.
Fig 9.1 Block
diagram of a
typical power
electronic
circuit with
dc-to-ac
inverter.
Voltage-and Current-Source Inverters

Inverters are divided into either Voltage-Source Inverters (VSI) or Current-Source Inverters
(CSI).
The dc source in VSI is a fixed voltage such as battery, fuel cells, solar cells, dc generators
or rectified dc sources.
In VSI, the output voltage, , is a function of the inverter operation and the load
current, is a function of the nature of the load, and the dc input, V
dc
, is a constant input
voltage.
o
v
o
i
Fig 9.2 Block diagram
representations for (a) voltage
source inverter and (b) current
source inverter.
Inverter Configurations

Figure 9.3 (a), (b) and (c) show, respectively, three possible single-phase inverter
arrangements: bi-phase, half-bridge, and full-bridge. The bi-phase inverter, also known as a
push-pull inverter, is drawn in two different ways in Fig. 9.3(a).

Fig 9.3 Single-phase inverter arrangements. (a) Biphase inverter. (b) Half-bridge inverter. (c)
Full-bridge inverter
Output Voltage Control

Output voltage is controlled by varying the dc source voltage, by either controlling the dc
input by using a dc-dc converter as shown in Fig. 9.4(a), or by using an ac-dc phase control
converter as shown in Fig. 9.4(b).
Fig 9.4 Controlling the dc input using (a) dc-dc converter or (b) ac-dc phase-controlled
rectifier
Basic Half-Bridge Inverter Circuit
Resistive Load:
Half-bridge voltage source inverter circuit under a resistive load as shown in Fig. 9.5(a).
Switching waveforms for S
1
, S
2
and the resultant output voltage are shown in Fig. 9.5(b).
S
1
and S
2
are switched on and off alternatively at a 50% duty cycle.
Fig 9.5 (a) Half-bridge inverter under resistive load. (b) Switching and output voltage
waveforms
In practice the above circuit does not require two equal dc voltage sources as shown in Fig.
9.5(a).
Instead, large splitting capacitors, C

, are used to produce two equal dc voltage sources as


shown in Fig. 9.6.
The two capacitors, C
,
are equal and very large, so that RC

is much larger than half the


switching period.
The current from the source, V
dc
, equals one-half of the load current,
.
In steady state, the average capacitor currents are zero, hence, C are used to block the dc
component of .

o
i
o
i
Fig 9.6 Half-bridge inverter circuit with large splitting capacitors
Basic Half-Bridge Inverter Circuit
Example 9.1
Sketch the current and voltage waveforms for i
in
, i
o
, ,and in the circuit shown in Fig. 9.6
for |=0 and |=0. Assume that the switching waveform for S1 and S2 are shown in Fig. 9.7.
Determine the average output voltage in terms of V
dc
and | when the inverter operates in the
steady state.
1 S
v
2 S
v
Solution
Mode 1 when S1 is ON and S2 is OFF, then the output voltage and current equations are
given by,

R
V
R
v
i
V v
dc o
o
dc o
= =
=
assumed that the capacitors are equal, then the load current, i
o
, splits equally, i.e.

R
V
i i i
R
V
i i
dc
c in c
dc
o c
2
2 2
1
1 2
1
= = =
= =
The voltages across the switches are,

dc dc o S
S
V V v v
v
2
0
2
1
= + =
=
Mode 2 starts when S1 and S2 are OFF during the short interval u,

2
0
0
0
2 1
2 1
dc
S S
in C C
o
o
V
v v
i i i
i
v
= =
= = =
=
=
Mode 3 starts when S2 is ON and S1 is OFF, which yields the following equations:

0
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
1 2
1
=
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
=
S
dc o dc S
dc
c in
dc
c c
dc o
c
dc o
o
dc
o
v
V v V v
R
V
i i
R
V
i i
R
V i
i
R
V
R
v
i
V
v
Mode 4 is similar to Mode 2 since both switches are open.

The average output voltage is given by:

2 2
,
0
2
2
,
1
( )
1
( )
2
T
o rms o
o rms dc dc
v v t dt
T
v V d V d
t u t u
u t u
| |
t

+
=
(
= +
(


}
} }
2
,
2
dc
o rms
V
v u
t
=
Notice that when , the rms value of the output is V
dc
/2
0 = u
(9.1)
Example 9.1
Figure 9.7(b) and 9.7(c) show the currents and voltages for |=0 and |=0, respectively. The
waveform is symmetric, the average output voltage will always be zero.

Fig 9.7 (a) Switching waveforms for Example 9.1. (b) Current and voltage waveforms for u
= 0 (c) Current and voltage waveforms for u = 0.
Example 9.1
Inductive-Resistive load:
Figure 9.8 (a) shows a half-bridge inverter under an inductive-resistive load, with its
equivalent circuit and the output waveforms are shown in Fig. 9.8(b) and (c), respectively.

Fig 9.8 (a) Half-bridge inverter with inductive-resistive load. (b) Equivalent circuit. (c)
Steady-state waveforms.
(a) (b) (c)
With S
1
and S
2
switched complementarily, each at a 50% duty cycle at a switching
frequency , is defined:

f
) (t v
in
)
`

< s
< s +
=
T t T V
T t V
t v
dc
dc
in
2
2 0
) (
(9.2)
The half-bridge inverter circuits shown in Fig. 9.9 with S
1
and S
2
implemented by
IGBTs.
In the steady state and its inductor current waveform is shown in Fig. 9.8(c) for ,
the inductor current is negative. At ,the current flows through the transistor Q
1
, as
shown in Fig. 9.8(c). At ,when S
2
is turned ON, since the current direction is
positive, the flyback diode, D
2
, turns ON until when Q
2
starts conducting.


2 T t =
1
t t =
1
2 t T t + =
1
0 t t < <
Fig 9.9 MOSFET implementation for S
1
and S
2
in the half-bridge inverter of Fig 9.8(a)
MOSFET Implementation
In steady state,
( )
( ) T i i
T i i
L L
L L
=
=
) 0 (
2 ) 0 (
During the first interval ( ) when S1 is on and S2 is off, , resulting in
the following equation for

2 / 0 T t < s dc in
V t v + = ) (
i t
L
( ):
dc L
L
V Ri
dt
di
L = + (9.3)
If the inductor initial value equals , the solution for is given by:

) 0 (
L
I ) (t i
L
( ) ( (0) )
t
dc dc
L L
V V
i t I e
R R
t

= +
R
L
= t
Since , then the initial condition at t=0 is constant and given by:

) 0 ( ) 2 / (
L L
I T I =
2
2
1
(0)
1
T
dc
L T
V e
I
R
e
t
t

=
+
(9.4)
(9.5)
The second half cycle for produces the following expression for with the initial
condition at equaling - .

i t
L
( )
2 T t =
) 0 (
L
I
2 T t >
( ) 2
( ) ( (0) )
t T dc dc
L L
V V
i t I e
R R
t
= (9.6)
The average power delivered to the load can be obtain from the following relation,

,
0
2
0
1
( ) ( )
2
(0)
T
o ave L o
T
t dc dc dc
L
P i t v t dt
T
V V V
I e dt
T R R
t
=
( | |
= + +
( |
\ .
}
} (9.7)
Where is given by Eq. (9.5)

) 0 (
L
I
The time at which becomes zero, , is obtained by setting in Eq. (9.4) to zero at
, to yield,

i t
L
( )
t t =
1
) (t i
L 1
t t =
t
t
2
1
1
2
ln
T
e
t

+
= (9.8)
Exact Analysis
Average Transistor and Diode currents

Obtain quantitatively the expressions for the diode and transistor currents, we represent the
load voltage and current by their fundamental components as shown in Fig. 9.10(a).
of and be given by ) (t v
o
) (t i
L
t V t v
o o
e sin ) (
1 1
=
1 1
( ) sin( )
L o
i t I t e u = +
where and and are the peak current and the phase angle
t
dc
o
V
V
2
1
= 1 o
I
u
( )
2 2 1
1
tan ,
2
L R Z and
R
L
Z
V
I
dc
o
e
e
u
t
+ = |
.
|

\
|
= =

Fig 9.10 (a) Output voltage and current waveforms. (b) Average transistor and diode current
waveforms as a function of u.
Using the fundamental component expression, the rms value of the diode and transistor
currents are given by:

}
=
u
t
0
2
1 ,
) (
2
1
dt t i I
L rms D
2 2
, 1
0
2
1 1
1
sin
2
sin 2 sin cos
4 2 2 2
D rms o
o o
I I td t
I I
u
e e
t
u u u u
u
t t t
=
| |
= + =
|
\ .
}
t
u u
t
u
u u u t
t
e e
t
t
u
cos sin
1
2
) sin cos (
4
sin
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
1 ,
+ = + =
=
}
o o
o rms Q
I I
t td I I
(9.12)
(9.13)
and the average values of the diode and transistor currents are given by,

}
=
u
e e
t
0
1 ,
sin
2
1
t td I I
o ave D
1
(1 cos )
2
I
o
u
t
=
1
(1 cos )
,
2
I
o
I
Q ave
u
t
= +
(9.14)
(9.15)
Inductive Load Analysis
The average output power delivered to the load is given by:

u cos
, 1 . 1 , rms o rms o ave o
I V P =
t
dc o
rms o
V V
V
2
2
1
, 1
= =
2
1
, 1
o
rms o
I
I =
Equation (9.16) yields the following expression for ,

ave o
P
,
u
t
cos
2
2
2
,
Z
V
P
dc
ave o
=
The ripple voltage in the dc-to-ac inverter is defined by,
2
,
2
, , ave o rms o ripple o
V V V =
The input ripple current expression in the dc-to-ac inverter is defined by:

2
,
2
, , ave o rms o ripple in
I I I =
2
2
, ,
8
1
t
u e
o
rms in ripple in
I I =
(9.16)
(9.17)
(9.18)
(9.19)
(9.20)
Inductive Load Analysis
Example 9.2
Consider the half-bridge inverter of Fig. 9.9 with the following circuit components:
V V
dc
= 408 R= 8O Hz f 400 = L mH = 40 .
(a) Derive the exact expression for .
(b) Derive the expression for the fundamental component of
(c) Determine the average diode and transistor currents.
(d) Determine the average power delivered to the load.
(e) Determine the ripple current.

L
i
). (t i
L
Solution
(a) The exact solution for is derived before, and given again in Eq. (9.21).

) (t i
L
( ) 2
(0) 0 2
( )
(0) 2
t dc dc
L
L
t T dc dc
L
V V
I e t T
R R
i t
V V
I e T t T
R R
t
t


| |
+ s s
|
\ .
=

| |

s s
|

\ .
Since
) 0 ( ) 2 (
L L
I T i =
t
t
2
2
1
1
) 0 (
T
T
dc
L
e
e
R
V
I

=
R
L
= t
(b) To calculate the fundamental component of , we first determine the a
1
and b
1

coefficients:
) (t i
L
(
(

+ =
} }
tdt t i tdt t i
T
t I
T
T
L
T
L L
e e cos ) ( cos ) (
2
) (
2
2
0
/
1
(
(

+ =
} }
tdt t i tdt t i
T
t I
T
T
L
T
L L
e e sin ) ( sin ) (
2
) (
2
2
0
//
1
(9.21)
(9.22)
(9.23a)
(9.23b)
The fundamental component of is given by,

) (t i
L
t t I t t I t i
L L L
e e sin ) ( cos ) ( ) (
//
1
/
1 1
+ =
A t t i
L
8 . 57 ) 3 . 2513 cos( 57 . 0 ) (
1
+ =
The rms value of

: ) (t i
L
(
(

+ =
} }
2
0 2
2 2
,
) ( ) (
1
T T
T
L L rms L
dt t i dt t i
T
I
A I
rms L
1 . 64
,
=
(c) The average diode current is given by Eq. (9.14) as,

( ) u
t
cos 1
2
1
,
=
o
ave D
I
I
o
R
L
45 . 85 tan
1
= |
.
|

\
|
=

e
u
A
Z
V
I
dc
o
58 . 2
85 . 100
408 2 2
1
=

= =
t t
( ) O = + = 85 . 100
2 2
L R Z e
Substitute the above values in I
D,ave
, then I
D,ave
turns to be

( ) A I
o
ave D
53 . 0 45 . 85 cos 1
2
58 . 2
,
= =
t
is equal to,

ave Q
I
,
( ) A
I
I
o
ave Q
63 . 0 cos 1
2
1
,
= + = u
t
(d) The average power is given in Eq. (9.17)

u cos
, 1 , 1 . rms o rms o ave
I V P =
2
2
2
cos
dc
V
Z
u
t
=
( )
2
. 2
2(408)
cos(85.45) 26.5
100.85
ave
P W
t
= =
(9.24)
Example 9.2
Example 9.3
Draw the output voltage and waveforms for the center tap bi-phase inverter shown in
Fig. 9.11. Assume S1 and S2 are bi-directional switches and are switched at a 50% duty
cycle. It is used in a low input voltage application to reduce losses, since the current only
flows half-period in a section of the transformer (the transformer is not fully utilized). The
two modes of operations are shown in Fig. 9.11(b) and (c), the waveforms are shown in Fig.
9.11(d).
1 s
v
Solution:
The equivalent circuit for Mode 1 when switch S1 is on is shown in Fig. 9.11(b). The output
voltage is given by,

1
2
n
n
V
v
dc
o
=
dc o
V
n
n
v
1
2
=
Figure 9.11(c) shows the equivalent circuit for Mode 2

dc o
dc
o
V
n
n
v
n
n
V
v
1
2
1
2
=
=
The waveforms for are shown in Fig. 9.11(d)

o
v
Fig 9.11 (a) Center-tap biphase inverter for Example 9.3. (b) Mode 1. (c) Mode 2. (d)
Voltage waveforms
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Example 9.3
Full-Bridge Inverters
Figure 9.12 shows the full-bridge circuit configuration for a voltage-source inverter
under resistive load.
If S1, S3 and S2, S4 are switched ON and OFF at a 50% duty cycle as shown in Fig.
9.13 (a), the output voltage, shown in Fig.9.13 (b), is a symmetrical square wave whose
fundamental rms value is controlled only by varying V
dc
.

Fig 9.12 Full-bridge inverter under a
purely resistive load.
Fig 9.13 (a) Switching sequence
for full-bridge voltage-source
inverter at 50% duty cycle. (b)
Output voltage waveform.
) sin( ) (
1
t
V
t v
dc
o
e
t
=
The rms value is .
t 2
dc
V
The fundamental component of the output voltage, is given by,


) (
1
t v
o
( ) u e
t
o
= t V t v
dc o
sin
2
1
) (
1
The fundamental value of is given by:
(9.25)
(9.26)
And the rms value is given by
t
o
2 4
1

dc
V
Fig 9.14 (a) Switching sequence with o
phase shift. (b) Output voltage. (c)
Fundamental component for v
o
(t).
Full-Bridge Inverters
It can be seen from the switching sequence of Fig. 9.14(a) that in the steady state, there
exist four modes of operation as shown in Fig. 9.16.
t
o
2 4
1

dc
V
Fig 9.16 Modes of operation.
Modes of Operation
Under an inductive load, for the circuit to work using SCRs, a diode must be added in
parallel with each SCR as shown in Fig. 9.15.

Fig 9.15 Possible switch implementation.
Possible Switch Implementation
Example 9.4: Consider the resistive load full-bridge voltage source inverter shown in Fig.
9.12 with the following circuit parameters: V
dc
= 150V, R = 12 and f
s
= 60 Hz. Sketch the
waveforms for determine the average power delivered to the load for the two
switching sequences shown in Fig. 9.13(a) and Fig. 9.14(a), with.

O
in o
i v &
o = 10
0
Solution
For the switch sequence shown in Figure 9.13(a), and are symmetric and given by,

o
v
o
i
, 0 2
, 2
dc
o
dc
V t T
v
V T t T
+ s <
=

s <

, 0 2
, 2
dc
o
dc
V
t T
R
i
V
T t T
R

+ s <

< <

The average output power is given by,



dt i v
T
P
o
T
o ave o
}
=
0
,
1
For the switch sequence shown in Fig. 9.14(a), the average output power as given by:

R
V
P
rms o
ave o
2
,
,
=
where the rms value is expressed as,

,
1
4 2
o rms dc
V V
o
t
=
The resultant average output power for is given by,

0
10 = o
R
V
P
dc
ave o
|
.
|

\
|

=
t
o 2
1
2
,
. 67 . 1666
,
watt P
ave o
=
Practical loads do not consist of a simple resistor with a unity power factor, but rather
have some sort of an inductance. Figure 9.17(a) shows a full-bridge inverter under an
inductive-resistive load.
If the switches are operating at a 50% duty cycle with a two-state output, then the
current and voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 9.17(b). The analysis of this inverter is
similar to the half-bridge voltage source inverter discussed earlier.
The rms values for and of Fig. 9.17(b) are based on a 50% square wave output
given by,

i
o
v
o
2
,
2
, 2
2
, 1
2
,
.......
rms n rms rms rms o
I I I I + + + =
dc rms o
V V =
2
,
Where ,
and is the peak current of the nth harmonic of .

2
,
n
rms n
I
I =
I
n
i t
o
( )
Fig 9.17 (a) Full-bridge inverter under R-L load.
(9.27a)
(9.27b)
Full-Bridge with R-L Load
Fig 9.17 (b) Waveforms under 50% duty cycle. (c) Fundamental component of the inductor
current.
(b) (c)
Full-Bridge Inverters
Output voltage is a square wave with a 50% duty cycle, its Fourier series
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + =
n
t n t t
t
V
t v
dc
o
e e e
e
t
sin
. . .
5
5 sin
3
3 sin
sin
4
) (
(9.28)
Therefore, is given by,

i t
o
( )
( )
( ) ( )
(
(

+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
=
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
sin
. . .
) 5 ( 5
5 sin
3 3
3 sin sin 4
) (
L n R n
t n
L R
t
L R
t
L R
t V
t i
dc
o
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
t
rms value for the nth current component,
n
dc
rms n
Z n
V
I
t
2 2
,
=
where,

2 2
) ( L n R Z
n
e + =
we assume that the major part of the average output power is delivered at the fundamental
frequency, then
ava o
P
,
( )
2
,
2
2 2
8
cos
dc
o ave
V R
P
R L
u
t e
=
+
(9.29)
(9.30)
Full-Bridge Inverters
Approximate Analysis
An approximate solution for the load current assuming that .
2 T R L ))
( ) u e ~ t I i
o o
sin
1 1 ,
R
L e
u
1
tan

=
where,
( )
t
e
dc
o
o
o
V
V and
R L
V
I
4
1
2 2
1
1
=
+
=
The average power delivered to the load,
u
u
cos
2
cos
1 , 1 ,
1 , 1 ,
o o
rms o rms o ave
V I
V I P
=
=
( )
2
2
2 2
8
cos
dc
ave
V R
P
L R
u
t e
=
+
where is the rms of the fundamental component of the inductor current.

rms o
I
, 1
(9.31)
(9.32)
Generalized analysis
Figure 9.18(a) shows a typical output voltage under o control that is produced using the
switching sequence of Fig. 9.14(a).
The equivalent circuit for the single-phase bridge inverter is shown in Fig. 9.18(b).

Fig 9.18 (a) Output voltage using
switching sequence given in Fig
9.14(a). (b) Equivalent circuit for
the full-bridge inverter.
(a) (b)
Fig 9.19 Generalized load
representation.
The Fourier analysis representation for is given by the following equation,

) (t v
o

=
=
5 , 3 , 1
sin ) (
n
n o
t n V t v e
o
t
n
n
V
V
dc
n
cos
4
=
where,

and is obtained from the following equation,

) (t i
o
) sin( ) (
5 , 3 , 1
n
n
n o
t n I t i u e =

=
where,

o
t
n
Z n
V
Z
V
I
n
dc
n
n
n
cos
4
= =
n n
Z Z = u
where is the magnitude of the nth harmonic impedance, and is the angle of the nth
harmonic impedance. The overall rms output voltage is given by,

n
Z
L
Z Z
t
o 2
1
,
=
dc rms o
V V
In terms of the nth harmonics,

=
=
5 , 3 , 1
2
2
2
,
cos
1
2
4
n
dc
rms on
n
n
V
V o
t
rms value of the current for each harmonic

=
=
... 5 , 3 , 1
2
, ,
n
rms n rms on
I I
(9.33)
(9.34)
(9.35)
(9.36a)
(9.36b)
(9.37)
(9.38)
(9.39)
Generalized analysis
rms for the nth harmonic
o
t
n
Z n
V
I
n
dc
rms n
cos
2
4
,
=
rms of the fundamental output current
o
t
cos
2
4
1
, 1
Z
V
I
dc
rms o
=
where,

( )
2 2
1
L R Z
o
e + =
The total average power delivered to the load resistance is given by,

}
=
T
o o ave o
dt v i
T
P
0
,
1
(9.40)
(9.41)
(9.42)
Generalized analysis
The voltage and currents THD are given in Eqs. (9.43a) and (9.43b), respectively.

1
2
, 1
,

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
rms o
rms o
v
V
V
THD
t
o
o
t
=
2
1
cos 2
2
,
1,
2
1
1,3,5...
1
cos
1
cos
o rms
i
o rms
n n
I
THD
I
Z
n Z n
o
o

=
| |
= |
|
\ .
| |
= |
|
\ .

For the nth harmonic, the average power of Eq. (9.42) is given by,

n rms on rms on ave on
V I P u cos
, , . ,
=
the total average power
n rms on
n
rms on ave o
V I P u cos
,
... 5 , 3 , 1
, . ,

=
=
(9.43a)
(9.43b)
(9.44)
Generalized analysis
Example 9.5
Consider the full-bridge inverter whose equivalent circuit is represented in Fig. 9.19 with
the four different loads shown in Fig. 9.20 with R=8O, L=30mH, C=147F, f
o
=60Hz, and
V
dc
=120V.

(a) Determine the rms for and v
o
for the 1
st
, 3
rd
, 5
th
and 7
th
harmonics.
(b) Determine the total average power delivered to the load for each of the above harmonics.
(c) Determine the output current and voltage total harmonic distortion.

o
i
Solution
To determine the rms for and for the 1
st
,3
rd
, 5
th
and 7
th
harmonics, we use the nth
harmonic given by,

o
i
o
v
( ) t n n
n
V
v
dc
o n
e o
t
sin cos
4
,
=
o
t
n
Z n
V
I
n
dc
rms n
cos
2
4
,
=
(9.45)
Fig 9.20 Various types of loads.
i) For the resistive load:

o=t/6.

( ) o
t
n
n
V
V
dc
rms n
cos
2 2
,
=
n
rms n
rms n
Z
V
I
,
,
= O = = 8 R Z
n
0 =
n
u


V V
rms
56 . 93
6
cos
120 2 2
, 1
= |
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
A
R
V
Z
V
I
rms rms
rms
69 . 11
, 1
1
, 1
, 1
= = =
V V
rms
0
2
cos
3
120 2 2
, 3
= |
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
A
R
V
Z
V
I
rms rms
rms
0
, 3
3
, 3
, 3
= = =


V V
rms
71 . 18
6
5
cos
5
120 2 2
, 5
= |
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
A
R
V
Z
V
I
rms rms
rms
34 . 2
, 5
5
, 5
, 5
= = =


V V
rms
37 . 13
6
7
cos
7
120 2 2
, 7
= |
.
|

\
|
=
t
t
A
R
V
Z
V
I
rms rms
rms
67 . 1
, 7
7
, 7
, 7
= = =
Using the first four harmonics, the approximate rms values for and are given by,

o
v
o
i
V V V V V V
rms rms rms rms rms o
34 . 96
2
, 7
2
, 5
2
, 3
2
, 1 ,
= + + + =
A I I I I I
rms rms rms rms rms o
04 . 12
2
, 7
2
, 5
2
, 3
2
, 1 ,
= + + + =
The exact rms values are given by

,
2 2
cos
6
dc
o rms
V
V
t
t
| |
= =
|
\ .
V 56 . 93
,
,
o rms
o rms
n
V
I
Z
= =
A 69 . 11
Example 9.5
ii) For the series RL Load:

The rms value for the output voltage is the same as the one above, since the output voltage is
independent of the load.

n
rms n
rms n
Z
V
I
,
,
=
( )
2 2
L n R Z
n
e + =
|
.
|

\
|
=

R
L n
n
e
u
1
tan
( )
A
L R
V
I
rms
rms
75 . 6
2 2
, 1
, 1
=
+
=
e
( )
A
L R
V
I
rms
rms
0
3
2 2
, 3
, 3
=
+
=
e
( )
A
L R
V
I
rms
rms
33 . 0
5
2 2
, 5
, 5
=
+
=
e
( )
A
L R
V
I
rms
rms
168 . 0
7
2 2
, 7
, 7
=
+
=
e
Example 9.5
iii) For the series RLC Load:

The rms value for the output voltage is the same as in (i), since the output voltage is
independent of the load.

2
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
C n
L n R Z
n
e
e
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

R
C n
L n
n
e
e
u
1
tan
1
A
C
L R
V
I
rms
rms
76 . 9
1
2
2
, 1
, 1
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
e
e
A
C
L R
V
I
rms
rms
0
3
1
3
2
2
, 3
, 3
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
e
e
A
C
L R
V
I
rms
rms
17 . 0
7
1
7
2
2
, 7
, 7
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
e
e
A
C
L R
V
I
rms
rms
35 . 0
5
1
5
2
2
, 5
, 5
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
e
e
Example 9.5
iv) For the parallel RLC Load:

The rms value for the output voltage is the same as the one shown above, since the output
voltage is independent of the load.

2
2 2
2
1 1
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
L n
LC n
R
Z
n
e
e
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

L n
R LRC n
n
e
e
u
2 2
1
tan
A
L
LC
R
V
I
rms
rms
68 . 723
1 1 1
2
2 2
2
, 1
, 1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
A
L
LC
R
V
I
rms
rms
0
3
1 3 1
2
2 2
2
, 3
, 3
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
A
L
LC
R
V
I
rms
rms
97 . 64
5
1 5 1
2
2 2
2
, 5
, 5
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
A
L
LC
R
V
I
rms
rms
80 . 33
7
1 7 1
2
2 2
2
, 7
, 7
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
e
e
Example 9.5
(b) Power calculations are obtained from the following equation:

n rms on rms on ave on
V I P u cos
, , ,
=
i) For the resistive load:

For n=1,3,5

1 cos =
n
u
watt P
ave o
04 . 1118 ) 69 . 11 )( 56 . 93 (
, 1
= =
watt P
ave o
0
, 3
=
5,
( 18.71)( 2.34) 43.78
o ave
P watt = =
watt P
ave o
33 . 22 ) 67 . 1 )( 37 . 13 (
, 7
= =
watt V I P
n rms on
n
rms on ave o
15 . 1184 cos
,
... 5 , 3 , 1
, . ,
= =

=
u
ii) For the series RL Load:

watt P
ave o
52 . 364 ) 72 . 54 cos( ) 75 . 6 )( 56 . 93 (
, 1
= =
watt P
ave o
0
, 3
=
watt P
ave o
867 . 0 ) 93 . 81 cos( ) 33 . 0 )( 71 . 18 (
, 5
= =
watt P
ave o
226 . 0 ) 22 . 84 cos( ) 168 . 0 )( 37 . 13 (
, 7
= =
watt V I P
n rms on
n
rms on ave o
61 . 365 cos
,
... 5 , 3 , 1
, . ,
= =

=
u
Example 9.5
iii) For the series RLC load:

watt P
ave o
48 . 698 ) 091 . 40 cos( ) 76 . 9 )( 56 . 93 (
, 1
= =
watt P
ave o
0
, 3
=
watt P
ave o
98 . 0 ) 36 . 81 cos( ) 35 . 0 )( 71 . 18 (
, 5
= =
watt P
ave o
24 . 0 ) 037 . 84 cos( ) 17 . 0 )( 37 . 13 (
, 7
= =
watt V I P
n rms on
n
rms on ave o
69 . 699 cos
,
... 5 , 3 , 1
, . ,
= =

=
u
iv) For the parallel RLC load:

watt P
ave o
11 . 65465 ) 78 . 14 cos( ) 69 . 723 )( 56 . 93 (
, 1
= =
watt P
ave o
0
, 3
=
( ) watt P
ave o
42 . 512 274 . 64 cos ) 97 . 64 ( ) 17 . 18 (
, 5
= =
( ) watt P
ave o
92 . 142 579 . 71 cos ) 80 . 33 ( ) 37 . 13 (
, 7
= =
watt V I P
n rms on
n
rms on ave o
45 . 66120 cos
,
... 5 , 3 , 1
, . ,
= =

=
u
(c) The total harmonic distortion can be obtained from Eq. (9.43) given by,

25 . 0 1
2
, 1
,
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
rms o
rms o
i
I
I
THD
Example 9.5
Example 9.6
Consider the active load in a bridge inverter that consists of an R-L load and an ac sinusoidal
voltage source as shown in Fig. 9.21 with the load voltage as shown. Obtain the
expression for the fundamental load current and the average power delivered to the load for
the following circuit parameters: ,V
dc
=180V, L=42mH, R=0.5O and
o=15
o
, f
o
= 60Hz.

o
v
( )
o
ac
t v 30 100 2 sin 100 = t
Solution:

(a) To obtain the expression for the fundamental load current we can use the following
equations:

L j R
V V
I
ac o
o
e +

1
1
V
V
V
o o dc
o
0 37 . 221 ) 15 cos(
180 4
cos
4
1
Z =

= =

t
o
t
o
ac
V 30 100 Z =

0
1 3
221.37 0 100 30
9.08 108.54
(0.5 2 (60))(42 10 )
o
o
o
I A
j t

Z Z
= = Z
+
The total power delivered to the load is given by the following equation:


=
1 1
2
1
o o T
V I P
W P
o o o
T
54 . 108 02 . 1005 ) 54 . 108 08 . 9 )( 0 37 . 221 (
2
1
Z = Z Z =
Harmonic Reduction
Harmonic reduction includes the elimination and cancellation of certain harmonics of
the output voltage.

Unlike in dc-to-dc converters, harmonics in the output waveforms are very significant.

In dc-to-dc inverters, the reduction or cancellation of the output harmonics is done
actively by controlling the switching technique of the inverter.

Unlike ac-to-dc conversion, harmonic filtering in dc-to-ac is harder since it will affect
the attenuation and/or the phase shift of the fundamental component.

The harmonics that are present in the inverters output voltage are high for many
practical applications.

By controlling the width or the number of pulses, it will be shown that certain harmonic
contents can be removed without the need to use complex harmonic filtering circuits.

It is possible to cancel certain harmonics by simply selecting the duration of the pulse in the
half-cycle of the output voltage. Peak component of the nth

harmonic for Fig. 9.18(a) is given
by,

o
t
cos
4
n
V
V
dc
n
=
Considering the 3rd harmonic, we have,

o
t
3 cos
3
4
3
dc
V
V =
To cancel the 3
rd
harmonics, set , this results with the cancellation of all the harmonics
of the order of 3n.

The nth harmonic for Fig.9.22 is given by,

6
t
o =
( )
2 1
cos cos 1
4
o o
t
n n
n
V
V
dc
on
+ =
For example to eliminate the 3
rd
and 5
th
harmonics, we make at two frequencies as follows,

0 =
on
V
0 3 cos 3 cos 1
2 1
= + o o
0 5 cos 5 cos 1
2 1
= + o o
o
1
=17.8
o
and o
2
=38
o


(9.46)
(9.47)
(9.48)
Fig 9.22 Two-angle shift
control of inverter output
voltage.
Harmonics
Example 9.7
Consider two cascaded push-pull inverters as shown in Fig. 9.23(a), the switching
waveforms for S
1
-S
4
are shown in Fig. 9.23(b). Sketch the waveforms for the outputs ,
, and .

1 o
v
2 o
v
o
v
Solution:

The waveforms for the output voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 9.23(c).

The fundamental component of is given by,

o
v
) sin(
2
cos
2
) (
1
o e
o
t
= t
V
t v
dc
o
where,

1
t e o =
Fig 9.23 (a) Two push-pull inverters for Example 9.7. (b) Typical switching waveforms.
Harmonic Analysis
The harmonics contents present in the output of the inverter could be significant. Recall
that the nth component for a square wave output is . For ,the
expression for is given by,

( ) 0 = o
t n
V
dc
4
0 = o
) (t v
o

=
=
,... 5 , 3 , 1
sin ) (
n
n o
t n V t v e
o
t
n
n
V
V
dc
n
cos
4
=
where,
(9.49)
The fundamental output voltage component is given by,

t
V
v
dc
o
e o
t
sin cos
4
1
=
(9.50)
Figure 9.24(a), (b) and (c) show the resultant output voltage where harmonics up to the 9
th

are included for , respectively.

0, and
6 3
t t
o o o = = =
Fig 9.24 The first nine output harmonics: (a) o = 0. (b) o = t/6.
(a) (b)
Harmonics
The sketch for the magnitude of the harmonics of Fig. 9.24, as a function of o, is shown in
Fig. 9.25.

Fig 9.25 Magnitude of the output harmonics
as a function of o.
Fig 9.24 (continued) (c) o = t/3.
Harmonics

The total harmonic distortion for is given by,

) (t v
o
1
2
, 1
,

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
rms o
rms o
V
V
V
THD
(9.51)

=
=
+ + =
.. 5 , 3 , 1
2
,
2
,
2
, 2
2
, 1
2
,
.....
n
rms on
rms on rms o rms o rms o
V
V V V V
where,

2
2
,
on
rms on
V
V =
o
t
n
n
V
V
dc
on
cos
4
=
Substitute Eqs. (9.52) and (9.53) into Eq. (9.51) to yield,

1
2
, 1
.. 5 , 3 , 1
2
,

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
rms o
n
rm on
V
V
V
THD
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
2
, 1
.. 7 , 5 , 3
2
,
rms o
n
rm on
V
V
V
THD

=
=
... 5 , 3
2
2
cos
1
cos
1
n
V
n
n
THD o
o
The plots of the THD for are shown in Fig.9.26.

2 0 t o o = = to
Fig 9.26 Plots of THD
as a function of o.
Harmonics
Pulse Width Modulation

Figure 9.27 shows the simplified block diagram representation for a single-phase
switching mode inverter.
The output shows different types of possible output waveforms that can be
produced depending on the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control technique
employed.

) (t v
o
'
Fig 9.27 Simplified block diagram of single-phase switching-mode inverter.
Since varying the width of these pulses within the half-cycle carries out the
control, the process is appropriately known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The
PWM method may be grouped into classes:

The PWM method may be grouped into classes:

1) Non-sinusoidal PWM in which all pulses have the same width and are
normally modulated equally to control the output voltage as shown in Fig. 9.28.
The widths of these pulses are adjusted equally to control the output voltage.
Fig 9.28 Typical waveform for equal-pulse PWM technique.
Pulse Width Modulation

2) Sinusoidal Pulse-Width-Modulation that allows the pulse width to be modulated
sinusoidaly, i.e. the width of each pulse is proportional to the instantaneous value of a
reference sinusoid whose frequency equals the fundamentals as shown in Fig. 9.29.

Fig 9.29 Typical waveforms for sinusoidal PWM technique.
Sinusoidal PWM

Reference voltage is square and sinusoidal waveforms for the equal pulse and
sinusoidal PWM. It is important that first we define some terms
) (
.
t v
ref
Repetitive triangular waveform (also known as a carrier signal).

( ):
.
t v
tri
The peak value of the triangular waveform.

:
. ,tri P
V
The period and the frequency of the triangular waveform (also known as a
carrier or switching frequency).

: ,
S S
f T
Reference signal that can be either a square or a sinusoidal waveform (also
known as a control signal).

:
. ref
v
The peak value of the reference signal.

:
. ,ref P
V
The desired inverter output period and output frequency, which are equal to the
period and frequency of the reference or control signal.

: ,
o o
f T
Inverter amplitude modulation index.
:
a
m
Inverter frequency modulation index.

:
f
m
k: Number of pulses per half cycle.

The amplitude and frequency modulation indices are defined as follows:

. ,
. ,
tri P
ref P
a
V
V
m =
o
s
f
f
f
m =
(9.55)
(9.56)
PWM Definition

Equal Pulse (Uniform) PWM

The Equal Pulse PWM technique, known also as a single pulse PWM control. Generating
the equal and multiple pulses is acheived by comparing a square wave reference voltage
waveform to a triangular control (carrier) voltage waveform .
) (t v
ref
) (
.
t v
cont
Fig 9.30 Examples of equal pulses. (a) One-pulse output. (b) Two-pulse output.
(a) (b)
o can be expressed in terms of and as follows:

. ,tri P
V
. ,ref P
V
( )
a
tri P
ref P
m
V
V
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2
1
2
. ,
. ,
t t
o
Frequency of the control signal, , is twice the frequency of the reference signal, .The
number of pulses, k, is equal to the number of periods of the control signal per half a period of
the reference signal, i.e. k is the number of switching periods, T
s
, in the period,
. tri
f
. ref
f
2
o
T
o
S
f
f
k
2
1
=
(9.57)
(9.58)
In terms of the frequency modulation index, may be expressed by the following relation:

,
f
m k
f
m k
2
1
=
Notice that is a special case where .

1 = k
2 =
o S
f f
The output frequency is equal to the frequency of the reference signal, i.e. and the
switching frequency is equal to the frequency of the carrier or triangle signal, .

. ref o
f f =
. tri S
f f =
(9.59)
The maximum width of each pulse occurs when and is given by,
1 =
a
m
k
T
t
o
width
2
max ,
=
the maximum conduction angle width of each pulse is given by,

k
t
mox width o width
t
e u = =
, max ,
Fig 9.30 (continued) Examples of equal pulses. (c) Three-pulse output. (d) Seven-pulse
output.
(c) (d)
(9.60)
(9.61)
Example for k =7 and m
f
= 14

A general expression for the i
th
pulse-width in a given k-pulse output in terms of i, k, and
. Referring to Fig. 9.31, the start of the i
th
pulse is,

a
m
, .
, .
( 1) 1
2
P ref
S
i S
P tri
V
T
t i T
V
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
Substituting for from Eq. (9.58) into Eq. (9.62), becomes,

S
S
T
f
1
= i
t
( ) ( 1) 1
2 4
o o
i a
T T
t i m
k k
= +
In terms of the starting angle, , of the pulse,
i o i
t e u =
th
i
(

=
2
1
2
a
i
m
i
k
t
u
for the two-pulse waveform, , and m=0.5, the angles at which the pulses start are
given by,

2 = k
8 2
1
4
1
1
2
1
t t
u =
(

=
8
9
4
1
2
1
3
2
3
t t
u =
(

=


8
5
2
1
4
1
2
2
2
t t
u =
(

=
8
13
4
1
2
1
4
2
4
t t
u =
(

=
because of the symmetry, u
3
= u
1
+ t and u
4
= u
2
+ t.
(9.62)
(9.63)
(9.64)
The Output Voltage
The average output voltage over a period of T
s
,
1 0
. ,
s < =
a dc a ave o
m V m V
(9.66)
The rms value for the pulse
th
i
}
+
=
width i
i
t d kV V
dc rms o
u u
u
e
t
2
,
2
2
1
width dc rms o
k
V V u
t
=
,
From Eq. (9.65) , hence,
k
m
a
width
t u =
a dc
a
dc rms o
m V
k
m k
V V = =
t
t
,
The rms of the output voltage is a function of the modulation index.
(9.67)
(9.68)
Harmonics of k equal pulses

Determine the harmonic components for the pulse shown in Figure 9.32.

th
i
Since it is an odd, function only the odd harmonics exist in the coefficients. The harmonics of
the output voltage due to the pulse acting alone is given by,

n
b
th
i
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
(
(

=
} }
+ +
+
+
2
sin
2
sin
2
sin
2
cos cos
,
width
i
width
i
width dc
dc
i on
n n
n
n
V
t d t n t d t n
V
V
width i
i
width i
i
u
u t
u
u
u
t
e e e e
t
t u u
t u
u u
u
For the total k pulses, is given by,

on
V

=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
k
i
width
i
width
i
width dc
on
n n
n
n
V
V
1
2
sin
2
sin
2
sin
2 u
u t
u
u
u
t
...... 5 , 3 , 1 = n
In terms of k, , and , can be expressed as,

a
m
width
u
i
u
2 2
1
width
i
i
k
u t
u |
.
|

\
|
= where
k i ...... , 2 , 1 =
width a
m
k
t
u =
(9.69)
(9.70)
(9.71)
(9.72)
Fig 9.32 Symmetric al
representation of ith pulse for a
given inverter output.
The n
th
harmonic component for the k-pulse output voltage maybe expressed as:

( )

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
i
a dc
on
n i
k
n
k
m
n
V
V
1
2 1 sin
2
sin
4 t t
t
(9.73)

To verify the above equation for a single pulse, we calculate the harmonic components for
k=1, i=1, and , to yield

1
u o =
( ) ( )

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
1
2 1 1 sin 2 1 sin
4
i
dc
n
n
k
i
k n
V
V
t t
t
Substituting for from Eq. (9.72), Eq. (9.74) becomes,

a
m
4
sin
2
dc width
n
V
V n
n
u
t
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
for odd n
Equation (9.75) represents the harmonic components of the output voltage for k = 1 as a
function of the width .
width
u
(9.74)
(9.75)
Example 9.8
For a uniform PWM with a value of k=5, and a modulation index , calculate the
output harmonic components up to the 15
th
harmonic.

0.2
a
m =
Solution:

Using Eq. (9.73), Table 9.1 shows the values of the first 15 harmonics. Figure 9.33 shows
the plot for the harmonic contents of Table 9.1. Figure 9.34 shows the harmonic ratios with
respect to the fundamentals for m=0.2 and k=1 to k=7 pulses per half cycle.


Fig 9.33 Harmonic contents for
k = 5 and m
a
= 0.2.
From Table 9.1 for m
a
=0.2, as the number of pulses increases per half a cycle, the
magnitude of the lower harmonics (third, fifth, seventh) decreases with respect to the
fundamental component. The THD for this example is 223%! The higher the modulation
index, the lower the THD.

Fig 9.34 Harmonic contents for k = 1 to k = 7, and m
a
= 0.2.
Example 9.8 (contd)

Sinusoidal PWM

Basic concept:

Recall that in PWM dc-dc converters the duty cycle is modulated between 0 and 1 in
order to regulate the dc output voltage. In the steady state, the duty cycle in PWM switch
mode converters is relatively constant and does not vary with time:
dc o
DV V =
where is the duty cycle representing the ratio between the on-time of the switch to
the switching period, and V
o
is the average output voltage.

D
(9.76)
Fig 9.35 Simplified buck converter.
If the duty cycle, , varies or is modulated according to a certain time function, with a
modulating frequency, , then it is possible to shape the output voltage waveform, , in
such a way that its average value over the modulating period synthesizes a sinusoidal
waveform.If the duty cycle is defined according to the following function,

) (t d
o
f o
v
t D D t d
o dc
e sin ) (
max
+ =
where,

dc duty cycle when no modulation exists.
maximum modulation constant.
frequency of modulation.

:
dc
D
:
max
D
:
o
e
the output voltage , , is given by,

o
v
dc o
V t d v ) ( =
t M V D V
o dc dc dc
e sin
max
+ =
For a buck converter, since the output voltage cannot be negative, then as shown
in Fig. 9.36.

dc
D D s
max
Fig 9.36 Example of D
dc

= 0.5, D
max
= 0.8D
dc
, and
f
o
= f
s
/12.
(9.77)
(9.78)
Sinusoidal PWM

Basic PWM Concept

As an example, if , , and , the duty cycle, , is given
by,

5 . 0 =
dc
D
dc
D D 8 . 0
max
= 12
s o
f f =
) 2 sin( 4 . 0 5 . 0 ) (
i o
t f t d t + =
where = 0,1,2,3,,12.

i
t
Since the switching frequency is 12 times faster than the modulating frequency, ,
then is sampled 12 times between .
o
f
) (t d
o
T t < s 0
Sinusoidal PWM

Basic PWM Concept

PWM Modulation Function
In the single pulse inverter with a two-state output of Fig. 9.13b, the modulation function is
simply unity.

dc o
V t m v ) ( =
2 0 1 ) ( T t t m < s =
In the single pulse inverter with a tri-state output, the modulation function in a half cycle is
given by,

dc o
V t m v ) ( =

< <
< s +
< s
=
2 0
2 1
0
) (
T t
T t
t
t m e o e o
e o u
In a k-pulse inverter with a constant duration, the modulation function is given by.

( )
o dc
v m t V =

< <
< s +
=
S
T t t d
t d t
t m
) ( 0
) ( 0 1
) (
(9.79)
(9.80)
(9.81)
Sinusoidal PWM

Switching Schemes
Depending on the switching sequence, the output voltage in PWM inverters can be either
bi-polar or unipolar. Fig. 9.37 shows a bi-polar output voltage in a PWM inverter. When
the reference sinusoidal signal is larger or smaller than the triangular wave, the output
equals, or .
dc
V +
dc
V
In the bipolar voltage switching, is an odd number with the same switching
frequency, .The output frequency, ,in the unipolar voltage switching, is twice
that of the frequency in the bipolar voltage switching ( is doubled).

f
m
S
f
o
f
f
m
Fig 9.37 Example of a bipolar PWM output waveform.
Sinusoidal PWM

(c)
(a)
(b)
Fig 9.38 Unipolar PWM output. (a) A positive sinusoidal reference to produce v
o1
(b)
Positive sinusoidal reference to produce v
o2
. (c) The differential output v
o
= v
o1
v
o2
.
Sinusoidal PWM

Unipolar Output Waveform

Signal Generation
Advanced digital and analog techniques exist in todays inverters to generate the driving
signals that produce a sinusoidal PWM. Fig. 9.39 shows a comparator that compares a
triangular signal to a sinusoidal reference signal.

Fig 9.39 Simplified circuit showing how signals are generated in sinusoidal PWM inverters.
Sinusoidal PWM

Analysis of Sinusoidal PWM
The output voltage signal in sinusoidal PWM can be obtained by comparing a control
signal, against a sinusoidal reference signal, , at the desired frequency.
cont
v
ref
v
The control frequency determines the number of pulses per half cycle of the output
voltage signal. The output frequency is determined by the reference frequency, .The
amplitude modulation index, ,is defined again as the ratio between the sinusoidal
magnitude and the control signal magnitude.

cont
f
o
f
ref
f
a
m
cont p
ref p
a
V
V
m
,
,
=
(9.83)
The duration of the pulses is proportional to the corresponding value of the sine wave at that
corresponding position. Then, the ratio of any pulse duration to its corresponding time
duration is constant as shown in Figure 9.40.

= = = =
i
i
y y y y
| | | |

3
3
2
2
1
1
constant
Fig 9.40 PWM figure illustrating the constant ratio
between the width and height of a given pulse.
Fig 9.41 High-frequency
sinusoidal PWM.
(9.84)
Sinusoidal PWM

PWM Concepts

The proportional variation of each pulse width with respect to the corresponding sine wave
amplitude could be seen by applying a triangular relationship as shown in Fig. 9.42.

Fig 9.42 Triangular approximation.
Sinusoidal PWM

Approximation

Output voltage Harmonics
For a sinusoidal PWM, the width of each pulse varies according to its position. The
output voltage is obtained using a Fourier series transformation for ,
o
v

=
+ =
,... 2 , 1
) sin cos ( ) (
n
n n o
t n b t n a t v e e
Since the inverter output voltage is an odd function, only odd harmonics exist.

The calculation of the output voltage harmonic components can be done using one
single pair of pulses as shown in Fig. 9.43.

2
1
( )sin( ) ( )
,
0
1
sin( ) ( ) sin( ) ( )
,
V v t n t d t
n i o
i wi i wi
V V nwt d wt V nwt d wt
n i dc dc
i i
t
e e e
t
u u t u u
t
u t 0
=
}
( + + +
(
= +
} }
(
+ (

Fig 9.43 Single sinusoidal
PWM pair of pulses.
(9.85)
(9.86)
The n
th
component of is given by,

o
v
2
sin sin sin
2 2 2
1
V k
dc wi wi wi
V n n n
n i i
n
i
u u u
u u t
t

| | | | | | | |

| | | | = + + +
`
| | | |
=
\ . \ . \ . \ . )
where, is the starting angle of the i
th
pulse, and is the pulse width at the corresponding
angular position.
i
u
e
u
(9.88)
Sinusoidal PWM

Approximating the Pulse Width, u
ei


Assume each pulse is located at the discrete value of .

From the geometry of the triangle ABC in Fig. 9.44 we have,
i
u
tri p y
V h
,
=
i ref p x
V h u sin
,
=
k k
T
y
o
o
t
e = =
2
Fig 9.44 Approximated pulse width, i.e., Ae = 0.
Sinusoidal PWM

i a app i
m
k
u
t
u
e
sin
,
|
.
|

\
|
= (9.91)
Exact expression for u
ei


For the i
th
pulse with an angle u
i
, the point of intersection between the control signal and
the axis is as shown in Fig. 9.45.

t e
( ) ( ) 0 , 2 1 2 k i t
The general expression for having all the lines of negative slopes is given by:

) ( t v
cont
e
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
tri p
f
cont
m
i t V
m
t v
t
e
t
e 1 2 ) (
,
k i ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 =
(9.92)
Fig 9.45 Intersections between v
ref
and v
cont
.
Sinusoidal PWM

The reference signal is
) sin( ) (
,
t V t v
ref P ref
e e =
Evaluating Eqs. (9.92) and (9.93) at , yields Eq. (9.94).

i
t u e = ), ( ) (
i ref i cont
v v u u =
(9.93)
i ref p
f
i tri p
f
V
m
i V
m
u
t
u
t
sin ) 1 2 (
, ,
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

(9.94)
Equation (9.94) can be re-written as ,

) 1 2 ( sin + = i
m
m
i
f
i a
u
t
u
(9.95)
The value of can be found when solving Eq. (9.95) numerically.

i
u
Exact expression for u
ei


Sinusoidal PWM

Consider the cases for a different number of pulses per half cycle as shown in Fig. 9.46.
The exact width for each pulse is found by adding the approximated width with the
corresponding error in each interval. The two-pulse case, we have e A 2 1
e e A = A
Fig 9.46 Illustration of two, three, and four PWM pulses per half-cycle.
Sample PWM Pulses

Calculation for any width can be done as shown in Figure 9.47.

i
i ref i ref
e
v v
A

=
) ( ) (
tan
/
u u
o
From the triangle DEF:

|
.
|

\
|
=
k
T
V
o o
tri p
4
tan
,
e
o
= =
k
V
tri P
t
2
1
,
tri P
V
k
,
2
t
Equating Eqs. (9.96) and (9.97),Ae maybe expressed by,

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
tri p
i ref i ref
i
V
v v
k
e
,
/
) ( ) (
2
u u
t
Substituting for , and in Eq. (9.98), Ae becomes


) sin( ) (
,
t V t v
ref p ref
e e =
f
m k
2
1
=
cont p
ref p
a
V
V
m
,
,
=
( )
i i
a
i
k
m
e u u
t
sin sin
2
/
= A
From : , Eq. (9.99) becomes

) sin( sin x x = t
( )
i i K
a
i
k
m
e u u
t
sin sin
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
= A
+
and since :, go to the general expression for the exact width,

i app i w i w
e A =
, , ,
u u
( )|
.
|

\
|
=
+ 1 ,
sin sin
2
1
sin
i k i i
a
i w
k
m
u u u
t
u
(9.96)
(9.97)
(9.98)
(9.99)
(9.100)
Expression for Exact Width

Sinusoidal PWM

Fig 9.47 Symmetric pair of pulses about t/2.
Pair or Pulses

Sinusoidal PWM

Example 9.9
Consider a full-bridge inverter with an R-L load with an output sinusoidal PWM voltage
with a reference frequency of 60 Hz, V
dc
= 280V, = 0.6, and = 24.

o
f
a
m
f
m
(a) Find the carrier frequency (triangular wave)
(b) Find the number of pulses per half cycle
(c) Find the angles of intersection and the pulse widths in a half cycle
(d) Find the harmonic components
(e) Find the total harmonic distortion

Solution

(a)
(b) k=
(c) The exact angles were numerically calculated using MathCad as shown in the table
below:

kHz Hz f m f
o f s
44 . 1 60 24 = = =
pulses 12
2
24
=
(d) Harmonic components in volts:

V 1 ( ) 167.931 =
V 11 ( ) 0.019 = V 21 ( ) 19.909 =
V 3 ( ) 0.048 =
V 13 ( ) 0.085 = V 23 ( ) 103.541 =
V 5 ( ) 0.127 =
V 15 ( ) 0.021 = V 25 ( ) 103.74 =
V 7 ( ) 0.03 =
V 17 ( ) 0.071 = V 27 ( ) 19.736 =
V 9 ( ) 0.118 =
V 19 ( ) 1.058 = V 29 ( ) 0.898 =
These values are plotted in Fig. 9.48.

Fig 9.48 First 29 harmonics using exact analysis for Example 9.9.
Example 9.9 (contd)

(e) The total harmonic distortion is approximated by

89 . 0 ) (
1
2
29
2
27
2
25
2
23
2
21
2
1
= + + + + ~ V V V V V
V
THD
Fig. 9.50, shows the plot of the normalized magnitude of the harmonic components
using uniform pulse width modulation with a modulation index of 0.6 for 12 pulses per
half a period.

Fig 9.50 Uniform PWM for Example 9.9.
Example 9.9 (contd)

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