NURSING RESEARCH

• Systematic process of collecting and

analyzing data to find an answer to a
question or solution to a problem, or to
validate or test an existing theory
• Study of all aspects, components,
activities and phenomena relating to
health and of interest to nurses
 FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH
• Answer questions, solve problems & make
decisions
• Enables us to see and understand how and
why a situation or a problem exists
• Helps us discover new things and ideas.
• Validate existing theories or generate new
ones.
• Identify and understand the causes and effects
of a situation or phenomenon.
 Why is Research important in
Nursing?
• So that we could
– Describe
– Explain
– Predict
– Control
 Reasons Why Nurses Do
Research
• Because nursing is a profession
– To contribute to the generation of nursing
knowledge
• Through research, nurses could evaluate
and document their contributions to their
client’s health and well-being and to the
health care delivery system
• It is one of the duties of the nurse
GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Descriptive – finds answer to the questions
who, what, when & where

Ex. “The management styles of school

administrators in Cebu City.”

“Smoking habits of health service providers

in government and private hospitals”
2. Explanatory/Correlation - attempts to explain the
possible factors related to a problem which have
been observed in a descriptive study
• Answers the questions why & how

Ex. “Relationship between Socioeconomic

Factors and Absenteeism among High
School Students in the City of Cebu”

“Marketing strategies and Sales

Performance of Garment Industries in the
province of Antique”
3. Intervention/Experimental - evaluates the effect
or outcome of a particular intervention or
treatment
• Cause & effect

Ex. “The effect of Different Levels of Applied

Nitrogen on the Growth and Yield of Rice”

“ The effect of the ADB – Assisted Microfinance

Projects on the Living Conditions of the
Beneficiaries”
 RESEARCH METHODS
• Experimental method – determines the
“causes & effect” relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled condition

• Survey/Descriptive method – obtains data

determine specific characteristics of a group
- aims to describe the relationship among
variables rather than to infer cause & effect
- serve as a starting point of theory dev. or
hypothesis generation
 RESEARCH METHODS
• Historical Method – a systematic collection &
critical evaluation of data relating to past
occurrences
- determine growth & development of a group,
organization or institution
- undertaken to answer questions concerning
causes, effects or trends relating to past events
that may shed light in present behavior or
practices

• Content Analysis – to ascertain the quality of

message or information found in a document or
in a mass media
 ETHICS OF SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH
• Principles
– The subjects should be protected from harm
and discomfort.
– Participation in studies should be voluntary.
– There is the right of individual participants
– Study to protect their privacy
» Anonymity - person/subject
» Confidentiality – result/answer to the
survey
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Identification and Definition of a
Research Problem
 Criteria for the Selection of
Problems
» Novelty
» Importance for the field represented
and implication
» Interest, intellectual curiosity and
drive
» Training and personal qualification
» Availability of data and method
» Special equipment and working
condition
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Criteria for the Selection of Problems
» Sponsorship and administrative
cooperation
» Cost and return
» Hazards, penalties and handicaps
» Time frame
» Ethical consideration
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 What is a Researchable Problem?

 There is perceived discrepancy between

what is and what should be.
 There are two or more plausible reasons for
the discrepancy
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Characteristics of a Good Research
Problem

 Relevant – contribute to knowledge &

dev’t
 Feasible – worth the time, money & effort
 Clear
 Ethical – does not impose danger in the
research subjects
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Significance of the Study

- Present the long range effects of the

results of the study.
- delimitation
 Scope and limitation of the Study

- Present the firm boundaries and the

study’s limitation or weakness.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
a. coverage or boundaries
b. area or locality
c. subject or population covered
d. duration or period of the study
e. research issues or concerns to which the
investigation is focused

Ex. The present study covers the women of

reproductive ages in the district of Jaro, Iloilo
City. To last for 7 months, the study is focused
on the knowledge of, attitude towards, and
practice of family planning techniques, natural
and otherwise.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• The study would be more comprehensive,
meaningful and far-reaching if it covers
more areas including rural communities,
which will provide basis for comparison.
This however, would mean more time,
money, and manpower, which the
researcher does not have.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Review of Related Literature

– process of collecting, selecting and

reading books, journals articles,
reports, abstracts, and other
reference materials.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Purposes of Review of Related Literature:

• Helps researcher identify and define a

research problem
• Helps justify the need for studying a problem
• Helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a
study
• Can be a source of a theoretical basis for the
study
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Purposes of Review of Related Literature:

• Enables the researcher to learn how to

conceptualize a research problem and properly
identify and operationally study variables
• Provides a basis for identifying and using
appropriate research design
• Provides lessons for data analysis and
interpretation.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
What to review & where to get materials?

• General References – indexes, reviews,

abstracts

• Primary Sources – research journals

• Secondary Sources – books, yearbooks,

encyclopedias
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Theoretical/Conceptual
Framework

 Theoretical Framework – consists of the

theories seem to be interrelated
 Conceptual Framework – made up of
concepts that are place within a sequential
design.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
II. Research Objectives and Hypotheses
Formulation

 Research Objectives – statements of

what researcher intends to do

 Types of Objectives
 Immediate/General objective
- directly to the research problem and
states clearly what the researcher will
do & expects to find out

 Specific Objectives – sub-objectives

THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Tips in Formulating Research
Objectives

– Use simple language

– Focus attention on the specific actions
that will be performed.
– State exactly, what will be done and
what variables will be measured.
– Write objectives in behavioral terms,
like “to determine…” “to describe…” to
comfort…
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 Hypothesis / Hypotheses

– State that an independent variable is

associated with a dependent variable.
– Specify that under certain conditions,
one variable is associated with or can
influence another variable.
– State that a particular characteristic of a
person or object varies accordingly to
another variable.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

1. Null Hypothesis VS Alternative Hypothesis

negative statement positive form

Example: Example:

“There is no significant “There is a significant

relationship….” relationship…”
 2. Directional
Specifies the direction of
the relationship between
the variables being studied
Example:
“People who smoke are
more prone to lung cancer
than those who do not
smoke”
VS Non - directional
Predicts only that there
is a relationship between
variables, being studied
but does not specify
what is it
Example:
“There is a difference in
the level of anxiety of
pre-surgical patients
who receive pre-op
instruction than those
who do not receive such
instructions
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
How to Write Hypotheses

• Written in simple understandable language

• Focus on the variables

• Must keep in mind the distinction between

independent and dependent variables.
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Selecting a Research Design

o Research Design – “blueprint”

of the study
 Plan/course of action
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Types of Research Design

1. Non/Pre – Experimental Designs – good

for descriptive research

Examples:
– Profile studies
– Exploratory studies
– Case studies
– Historical studies
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Non/Pre – Experimental Designs
A. Post – Test Only Design or After only
survey – one “shot survey”
 No baseline data
 “How do 4 diff. methods of securing
endotracheal tubes in orally intubated
patients compare in terms of tube sterility?
Manipulated Variable: Lillihie, Harness,
Comfit dale, Secure Easy
Subject: 120 ICU patients (30 each
method)
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
B. Pre – Test – Post – Test Design or Before – after
Survey – the study wants to know the change in the
characteristics of study population
 “Is a special educational program for nurses
concerning causes of noise effective in
decreasing noise levels in an ICU for infants?”
Manipulated Variable: Nurses’ participation in
the program
Subject: 52 nurses
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
A. Static Group Comparison – composed of two
groups
Example:
a. health teaching = effect
b. without health teaching = effect
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2. True Experimental Designs – subjects
are randomly selected to the
experimental group and the control
group to achieve pre-intervention
equality of groups

A. Pre – Test – Post – Test Control Group

Design – same with static but randomly
selected

B. Post – Test Only Control Group Design

–still with 2 groups, without survey,
randomly selected
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
3. Quasi – Experimental Design – almost the
same with True Experimental Designs
except that it does not have any restrictions
of random assignment

A. Non – Equivalent Control Group

Design – training programs
 “Does participation in the
Cardiovascular Health Education
Program improve adolescents’
cardiovascular health knowledge?”
Manipulated Variable: Participation vs.
non participation
Subject: 22 adolescents in CHEP; 12 in
control group
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
B. Time Series Design
 “What is the effect of 12 weeks of low
impact aerobic exercise program on
fatigue, aerobic fitness and disease activity
measures in people with rheumatoid
arthritis?
Manipulated Variable: Participation in the
exercise program
Subject: 32 people with rheumatoid arthritis
THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Considerations in Selecting a Study

Design

• Ethical Issues
• Practical and administrative Issues
• Technical Issues
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Selecting a Sample

Sampling
– is the process of choosing a representative
portion of a population that will represent the
entire population
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Terms To Remember

• Population – refers to the total number of

elements to be studied

• Target population – population for which

representative information is desired

• Sampling population – population from

which a sample is drawn
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Basic Types of Sampling

3) Non – Probability Sampling – arbitrary and

is generally subjective
 there is no way of ensuring that each
member of the population could be
selected
 risk of bias is greater
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Accidental Sampling/Convenient – entails
the use of the most conveniently available
people or objects as subjects in the study

e.g. A faculty member who distributes

questionnaires to the nursing students in a
class
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Purposive Sampling/Judgmental –
based on the researcher’s knowledge
about the population can be used to
hand pick the cases to be included in
a sample
- often used when the researcher
wants a sample of experts
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2) Probability Sampling – uses random
procedures for the selection of the sample
 every member of the population has an
equal probability of being included in the
sample

a) Simple Random – process of selecting sample

cases from a population, giving all sampling units
equal chances of being included in a sample

b) Stratified Random Sampling – taking certain

areas of the population dividing the areas into
sections and then taking random sample from
each section
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
c) Systematic Sampling within a Random Start –
involves the selection of every kth case from
some list or group
K = N/n
K – sampling interval
N – size of the population
n – desired sample size

d) Cluster Sampling – selecting a sample of

groups or cluster of elements
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Data Collection

Types of Research Data

• Quantitative VS Qualitative

can be counted descriptive information

THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2. Primary VS Secondary

directly from from other

the subjects available
sources
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Techniques Collecting Quantitative Data

1. Structural interview

2. Self – Administered Questionnaires

3. Mailed Questionnaires

4. Service Statistic
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Techniques in Collecting Qualitative Data

1. In – depth interview

2. Focus group interview

3. Direct observation

4. Content analysis
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Data Processing

Steps in Data Processing

Step 1 : Editing
Step 2 : Coding
Step 3 : Encoding and Creating Data Fill
Step 4 : Tabulation : Generating Data
Summaries
 Steps in the Research Process
1. Identify the problem
2. Conduct literature review
3. Identify theoretical/conceptual framework
4. Formulate hypotheses
5. Operationalize variables
6. Select research design
7. Ascertain and select sample
Steps in the Research Process
8. Conduct a pilot study.
9. Collect data.
10. Analyze data.
11. Interpret results.
12. Disseminate information.