Material Science

Structures and Properties of Metallic Materials Ceramics Polymers Composites Encompasses - Electronic, Magnetic, Optical, Mechanical, and Chemical Properties FE/EIT Exam - Two Major Areas - Fundamentals of
1. Strength, Deformation, Plasticity of Crystalline Solids 1 2. Phase Equilibrium in Metallic Systems

Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys

Experimental Techniques - Response to Applied Stress Capacity to withstand static load (Tension / Compression) Resistance to permanent deformation (Hardness) Toughness under shock loading (Impact) Useful life under cyclic loading (Fatigue)

Elevated temperature behavior (Creep and Stress Rupture)

Tension Testing
Two distinct stages of deformation Elastic Deformation (Reversible Change in Volume) Plastic Deformation (Irreversible Constant Volume) Elastic Deformation

Hookes Law s = Ee

s = Stress

e = Strain

E = Youngs Modulus / Modulus of Elasticity Plastic Deformation

Plastic Deformation (Non-Linear)

Yield Stress = sy

Off-Set Yield = s0.2%

Figure 3.1

Ultimate Tensile Strength = suts

Fracture Stress = sf
Ductility Figure 3.2

(sf < suts)

Work Hardening / Strain Hardening Figure 3.3-4

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Nature of Plastic Flow

For Crystalline Material (including metals and alloys)

Plastic deformation involves sliding of atomic planes called slip deformation, analogous to shear.
Slip System - Combination of a close-packed plane and a close-packed direction. Slip occurs along planes and are restricted in crystallographic directions that are the most densely packed. The greater the planes and directions, the easier it is to produce plastic slip without brittle fracture.

Slip Deformation -

continued

Slip occurs when the resolved component of Shear Stress

tR = P/A cosf cosl

Figure 3.6

exceeds the critical value

Critical Resolved Shear Stress (tR)crit

Dislocation Edges (tRcrit < 1/5 Theoretical) Figure 3.7-8 Dislocation Lines & Frank-Reed Source
Figure 3.9
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Compressive Strength
Compressive Stress similar to Tensile Stress (except no necking in pure compression) quite useful for materials which are brittle in tension, but have significant compressive load bearing capabilities (concrete, cast iron, etc).

Hardness Test
Determines resistance to penetration of a stylus. Useful for qualitative estimate of service wear, strength, and toughness. Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, MicroHardness Table 3.1

Fatigue Test
Cyclic Load - Fatigue Life Number of Cycles (N) to Failure with Cyclic Stress Amplitude (S)

Steel - Critical Value of Stress = Scrit Figure 3.10 Endurance Limit

Aluminum - No Endurance Limit
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Fatigue Testing -

continued

Fatigue fractures are progressive. Fatigue Strength Maximum Cyclic Stress Amplitude for a specified number of cycles until failure. Fatigue is a surface active failure. Surface defect (notch) can initiate crack. Rough surface reduces fatigue strength by 25%. Cold rolling/shot peening increases by 25%. Corrosive Fatigue important cause of service failure.
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Fatigue Testing -

continued

Fatigue Life / Fatigue Strength improved by Highly Polished Surface Surface Hardening Carburizing, Nitriding, etc. Surface Compression Stresses Shot Peening, Cold Rolling, etc.

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Toughness and Impact Testing

Impact Value Simple evaluation of the notch toughness. Toughness A measure of energy absorption before failure. Charpy and Izod Machines Swinging pendulum loading with notched-bar samples. Figure 3.11
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Creep at High Temperature (Stress Rupture)

Creep - Progress deformation at constant stress Negligible below 40% absolute melting point Andrades Empirical Formula

e = e0(1 + bt 1/3)e kt
t = Time
Figure 3.13
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e = Strain

e0 = Initial Elastic Strain

b and k Material Constants

Stress Rupture Test

Stress Rupture Test similar to creep test but carried out to failure Design Data Reports include Elongation, Applied Load, Time to Failure, and Temperature Grain Boundary Sliding Failure mode for polycrystalline metals Creep rate lower for large-grain material Note: Oxides influence creep and stress rupture
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Metallurgical Variables
Microstructural Conditions Effects of Heat Treatment Effects of Processing Variables Effects of Service Conditions
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Microstructural Conditions
Grain Size Effect Ordinary temperature - fine grain, more strength High temperature - larger grain, greater strength Single Phase vs Multiphase Alloys Second phases many add profound differences Porosity & Inclusions - Poor mechanical properties Directionality Rolling direction vs transverse direction affect mechanical properties, introduce anisotropy
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Effects of Heat Treatment

Annealing - Softening, ductile behavior Quenching of Steel Martensite formation, strong but brittle Tempering of Martensite Hardness decreases, toughness increases Strength is sacrifice to avoid brittle failure Age Hardening Fine scale precipitation, increased strength Case Hardening Hard case, soft core by carburizing and nitriding 17 Increased strength, better wear-resistance

Effects of Processing Variables

Welding - Heat-affected zone, larger grain size, poorer mechanical properties. Local chemical changes, including loss of carbon in steel, quenching cracking due to rapid quenching.

Flame Cutting - Drastic changes of microstructure near the flame-cut surface, affects properties.
Machining and Grinding - Cold working results in stain hardening, may produce surface cracks.
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Effects of Service Conditions

Extreme Low Temperature Ductile-brittle transition occurs in steel. Extreme High Temperature Causes corrosion and surface oxidation Surface cracks may form Results in corrosion fatigue, creep, and rupture Impact Loading Notch sensitivity, surface scratches, corrosion pits can initiate brittle failure Corrosive Environment - Stress corrosion, pitting19 corrosion, corrosion fatigue

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

Alloy composition expressed as weight (wt.%) or atomic (at.%) percentage. Determining equilibrium phase diagrams X-Ray Diffraction, Optical Microscopy, Calorimetric Analyses, and Thermal Analyses. Phase - Bounded volume of material of uniform chemical composition, with fixed crystalline structure, and thermo-plastic properties at a given temperature. 20

Equilibrium
Equilibrium between Phases Gibbs Phase Rule P + F = C + 2 P = number of phases, C = number of elements F = degrees of freedom, 2 = external variables (temperature and pressure).

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Analysis of Phase Diagrams

Thermal Arrest (Freezing/Melting Point) Lever Rule Solid Solution Alloy Eutectic Notation a = primarily A, small amount of dissolved B b = primarily B, small amount of dissolved A
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Eutectics

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Atomic Bonding and Solids

Three Forms of Matter Gaseous, Liquid, Solid Solid - Amorphous, Crystalline, Mixture Amorphous Molecules randomly without any periodicity Crystalline Molecules organized in distinct three dimensional patterns (motif = unit cell) Atomic Bonding Ionic, Covalent, Metallic 24

Electronic Structure of Atoms

Quantized = Orbiting (Shell) Electron Energy Levels Quantum Numbers (Three Indicators) Quantum Number n = Energy Level # of electrons per shell = 2n2 Sub-Levels l = 0, 1, , n-1 l = 0, 1, 2, 3 = s, p, d, f for n=1, l =0 and shell = 1(s) for n=2, l =0,1 and shell = 2(s) and 2(p) Magnetic Quantum Number m = -l to +l (0) Spin Quantum Number s = + 1/2 or -1/2 25

Paulis Exclusion Principle

Each quantum state can accommodate 2 electrons of opposite spin (- 1/2 & + 1/2 {up & down}) No more than 2 electrons per state Applies to states, not energy levels Valence Electrons = Outermost s & p states
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Ionic Bonding
Electropositive and Electronegative Elements Example: Due to exchanged electrons Sodium (Na+) and Chlorine (Cl-) Opposite charges attract Figure 3.26 Electron clouds repel Potential energy minimum at balance distance Potential Well = Preferred Site Figure 3.27
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Covalent Bonding
Homopolar (Covalent) Bonding = Electron Sharing Bonding Pairs = Number of Shared Electrons = 8 - N ( N=Valence) Carbon (Atomic Number 6) Electron Configuration 1(s)22(s)22(p)2 Valence Electrons = 2 (from 2s) + 2 (from 2p) = 4 Bonding Pairs = 8 - 4 = 4
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Metallic Bonding
Metallic Elements (Valence = 1 or 2) Valence Electrons free to migrate and are not localized to individual atoms in as in the case of ionic or covalent bonding. The sea of migrating electrons and the attraction between positively charged atoms producing threedimensional periodic lattices.

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Electrical Properties
Ionic and Covalent Bonding Localized Electrons = Insulators Conductivity increases with temperature

Metallic Bonding Free Migrating Electrons Collide with Oscillating Lattices Higher Mean Free Path = Higher Conductivity Conductivity decreases with temperature
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Energy Bands
Paulis Exclusion Principle (2 per state) Energy bands have quasi-continuous levels Fill from lowest to highest energy levels Additional energy (thermal or electric field) Kinetic energy increases Electrons move up an energy level Figure 3.28 but only at the highest level Conduction Band - Valence Band - Energy Gap Semiconductors 31 Energy Gap

Crystalline State and Crystallography

Unit Cell Lattice with atoms at each corner (6 parameters) Parallelepiped (a, b, g, a, b, c) Figure 3.30 Seven distinct shapes Table 3.2 Bravais Lattice Fourteen constructions are possible where each atoms has an identical surrounding.
Figure 3.33
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Body-Centered Cubic Lattice

Body-Centered Cubic Lattice BCC (9) Face-Centered Unit Cell FCC (12) Closed Packed Plane Figure 3.36 Hexagonal Closed Pack Lattice HCP (13)
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35

Figure 3.37

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Miller Indices
System of notation used for denoting planes and directions in crystalline structures (hkl). Note: All integers, without common factors.
Figure 3.38

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Primitive Cells
Only Corner Atoms Cubic Lattice, Hexagonal Lattice BCC, FCC, HCP are not primitive cells. Number of Atoms per Cell Simple Cubic (1/8 * 8) = 1 per cell FCC (1/8 * 8 + 1/2 * 6) = 4 per cell BCC (1/* * * + 1) = 2 per cell
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Interplaner Spacing
Interplaner Distance (dhkl) Figure 3.39 Perpendicular distance between equivalent planes Measured in Angstrom Units A = 10-8 cm Atomic Packing Factor = Volume of Atoms Volume of Space FCC APF = 0.74V Figure 3.40 BCC APF = 0.68 Figure 3.41 X-Ray Crystallography Braggs Law 2dhkl = sin q = h g 36 g is X-Ray Wavelength and h is Reflection Number