Thermodynamic Design of Engine

P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Design for Performance..
Mean Effective Pressure
The constant pressure that would have to exist to do the
same work over V
d
as is done by the actual cycle.
A better measure of engine work than torque
Depends more on engine design than engine size
At maximum torque:
Naturally aspirated: 850 to 1050 kPa
Turbocharged: 1250 to 1700 kPa
These are about 10% lower at maximum power
SI Engine Cycle vs Thermodynamic Otto Cycle
A
I
R
Intake
Stroke
FUEL
Ignition
Power
Stroke
Fuel/Air
Mixture
Compression
Stroke
Combustion
Products
Exhaust
Stroke
TC
Q
in
Q
out
Air
Compression
Process
Const volume
heat addition
Process
Expansion
Process
Actual
Cycle
Otto
Cycle
BC
Const volume
heat rejection
Process
Early CI Engine Cycle and the Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle
A
I
R
Intake
Stroke
Fuel injected
at TC
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke

Air
Compression
Stroke
Combustion
Products
Air
Compression
Process
Expansion
Process
Actual
Cycle
Diesel
Cycle
BC
Q
out
Const volume
heat rejection
Process
Q
in
Const pressure
heat addition
Process
Transient I.C. Engine Processes : Control Mass
) ( ) (
) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
fuel
air
- -
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
irr
CM
W
dt
t dV
t p t W

)
`

=
-
) (
) ( ) (
( )
atm cyl CM
T t T t UA t Q =
-
) ( ) ( ) (
Parameters that require Process Rate model
Actual SI Engine cycle
Ignition
Total Time Available ~ 10 msec
Early CI Engine Cycle
A
I
R
Combustion
Products
Fuel injected
at TC
Intake
Stroke

Air
Compression
Stroke
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke
Actual
Cycle
In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC and thus
combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.
Fuel injection starts
Early CI engine
The combustion process in the early CI engines is best
approximated by a constant pressure heat addition
process Diesel Cycle
Modern CI Engine Cycle
Combustion
Products
Fuel injected
at 15
o
bTC
Intake
Stroke
A
I
R
Air
Compression
Stroke
Power
Stroke
Exhaust
Stroke
Actual
Cycle
In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 15
o
)
Fuel injection starts
Modern CI engine
The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated
by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure Dual Cycle
Thermodynamic Design : A tradition of Post Carnot
Research
Major portion of motive power generation occurs in any Reciprocating IC
engine in a control mass (closed system).
The thermal operation of any IC engine is a transient cyclic process.
Even at constant load and speed, the value of thermodynamic parameters at
any location vary with time.
Each event may get repeated again and again.
So, an IC engine operation is a transient process which gets completed in a
known or required Cycle time.
Higher the speed of the engine, lower will be the Cycle time.
Modeling of IC engine process can be carried out in many ways.
Multidimensional, Transient Flow and heat transfer Model.
Thermodynamic Transient Model USUF.
Fuel-air Thermodynamic Model.
Air standard Thermodynamic Model.
Irreversible I.C. Engine Cycle
First Law Analysis: Transient Compression of
Control Mass
Compression Process
Fuel/Air
Mixture
Air
SI Engine CI Engine
Ideal Compression Process
) ( ) (
) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
fuel
air
- -
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
| |
)
`

=
-
dt
t dV
p t p t W
cc
CM
) (
) ( ) (
( )
atm cyl CM
T t T t UA t Q =
-
) ( ) ( ) (
Parameters that require Process Rate model
Reversible displacement work:
Instantaneous Rate of heat transfer:
Actual Compression Process : Control mass :
Variable Property Single Fluid , heat transfer , frictional losses
) ( ) (
) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
fuel
air
- -
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
Isentropic Compression Process
For a infinitesimal compression process:
pdV dU TdS =
dV
V
mRT
mRdT pdV dT mc Vdp dU
v
+

= + = =
1
1
0

V
dV
T
dT
dV
V
T
dT =
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
1
1
1
kgK kJ
T
C
T
C
T
C C c
p
/
1000 1000 1000
3
3
2
2 1 0
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
R c
c
p
p

=
( )
V
dV
T
T
dT
) ( 1 =
|
.
|

\
|
For infinitesimal compression from initial state.
Variable Properties of Working fluid
( )
( )( )
( ) 1
1

+ + =
T
T
dV V dT T TV

1
V
( ) ou
u
1
1
d
dV
V +
( ) ou
u
i
i
d
dV
V +
1 2
V r V
c
=
Friction Force
p
S f =

Friction force is directly proportional to piston velocity

(

= 1
sin
cos
sin
60
2 2
u
u
u
t
R
LN
S
p
(

= 1
sin
cos
sin
60
2 2
u
u
u
t

R
LN
f
where is a coefficient of friction that takes into
account the global frictional losses
The extra instantaneous power during Compression
2
2 2
1
sin
cos
sin
60

)

= =
u
u
u
t

R
LN
S f P
p
1
V
1 2
V r V
c
=
i
V
i i
dV V +
Frictional Adiabatic Compression
( )
V
dV
T
T
dT
comp
fri
) ( 1
1
,

q

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

For Irreversible Adiabatic Compression

p
dp
T n
T n
T
dT
comp
irr
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

) (
1 ) ( 1
,
q
For Irreversible Polytropic Compression
For another infinitesimal compression from p+idp:
idp p
dp
dT T n
dT T n
dT T
dT
i
j
j
i
j
j
comp
i
j
j
i
+
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
=

=
+
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
1
1
) (
1 ) (
1
q
Evaluation of Polytropic efficiency, h
comp,
.

Actual Compression Process : Control mass :
Variable Property Single Fluid , heat transfer , frictional losses
) ( ) (
) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
fuel
air
- -
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
Actual Compression Process : Control mass :
Variable Property Single Fluid , heat transfer , frictional losses
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
T mc d
CM
CM
CM
air v
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
CI Engine
Compressions:
( )
dt
t dv
p
dt
T c d
CM
air
v
) (
= |
.
|

\
|
dt
dv
v
RT
dt
dT
R =
1
1

Ideal Gas Model

dt
dv
v
T
dt
dT
=
1
1

v
dv
T
dT
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1

kgK kJ
T
C
T
C
T
C C c
p
/
1000 1000 1000
3
3
2
2 1 0
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =

) (
) (
) (
R T c
T c
T
p
p

=
( )
v
dv
T
T
dT
) ( 1 =
|
.
|

\
|
Properties of Gases
kgK kJ
T
C
T
C
T
C C c
p
/
1000 1000 1000
3
3
2
2 1 0
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
Gas C
0
C
1
C
2
C
3

Air 1.05 -0.365 0.85 -0.39
Methane 1.2 3.25 0.75 -0.71
CO
2
0.45 1.67 -1.27 0.39
Steam 1.79 0.107 0.586 -0.20
O
2
0.88 -0.0001 0.54 -0.33
N
2
1.11 -0.48 0.96 -0.42
Variable Properties of Air
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, K
g
c
p

c
v

Properties of Fuels
kgK kJ
T
C T
C
T
C
T
C C C
f p
/
1000 1000 1000
2
4
3
3
2
2 1 0 ,
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
Fuel
C
0
C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4

Methane -0.29149 26.327 -10.610 1.5656 0.16573
Propane -1.4867 74.339 -39.065 8.0543 0.01219
Isooctane -0.55313 181.62 -97.787 20.402 -0.03095
Gasoline -24.078 256.63 -201.68 64.750 0.5808
Diesel -9.1063 246.97 -143.74 32.329 0.0518
Isentropic Compression : Variable Property Model
s
T

1 1
dv v +
1
v

=
+
2
1
1
i
i
dv v

=
+
j
i
i
dv v
1
1

=
+
1
1
1
n
i
i
dv v
2
v
For a small compression ratio:
( ) ) ( 1
1 1
T
i
i
i
i
v
v
T
T


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
Isentropic Compression : Variable Property Model
s
T

1 1
dv v +
1
v

=
+
2
1
1
i
i
dv v

=
+
j
i
i
dv v
1
1

=
+
1
1
1
n
i
i
dv v
2
v
For a small compression ratio:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ) ( 1
1
1
1
T
i
i
i
i
i
v
v
T
T

u
u
u
u

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
Explicit Method:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1 1
1

=
i
T
i v i i
r T T
u
u u u
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1
1
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
i
T
i
i
i
i
i
v
v
T
T
u
u
u
u
u
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1
) ( 1
1
) ( 1
1
1

+
= =
i i i
T
i v
T
i v i
T
i v i i
r r T r T T
u u u
u u u u u u
Pressure Profile During Compression
Ideal Gas Model:
( )
( )
( ) u
u
u
V
mRT
p =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1 1
1

=
i
T
i v i i
r T T
u
u u u
Initial Conditions
Engine Respiratory System
P
exh,cyl
Exhaust Valve : Operation Schedule
P
cyl

P
atm

Inlet Valve : Operation Schedule
P
cyl

P
atm

Cylinder Pressure Diagram
q
A
exhaust

A
intake

Work Required for Compression
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) u
u
u
u u u o dV
V
mRT
dV p W = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
} } }
= = =
TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
V
dV
T mR dV p W W
n compressio
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u u u u o
( )
( )
( )
}
=
TDC
IVC
V
dV
T mR W
n compressio
u
u
u
u
u
Global Isentropic Compression Process
The overall isentropic process between states 1 & 2:
}
=
2
1
1 2
pdv m U U
}
=
2
1
1 2
pdv U U
( )
( )
[
=

=
N
i
T
v
i
r T T
1
) ( 1
1 2
1

( )
( )

=
N
i
i
T
v
r T T 1
1
) ( 1
1 2

Basics of Combustion
23 Complete combustion at constant volume
0
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
) (t Q
dt
du
m
CM
CM
air
-
=
|
.
|

\
|
. . ) ( V C t m
dt
du
m
fuel
CM
air
-
=
|
.
|

\
|
23 Complete combustion at constant volume
in
Q U U + =
2 3
. .
2
0
2
0
3
0
V C m dT mc Q dT mc dT mc
fuel
T
T
v in
T
T
v
T
T
v
+ = + =
} } }
(
(

+ =
} }
. .
2
0
3
0
V C
A
F
dT c m dT mc
T
T
v
T
T
v
23 Complete & Finite Duration combustion
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
( )
( )
dt
t dV
t p V C t m
dt
t T dc
m
comb fuel
CM
v
=
|
.
|

\
|
-
. . ) (
) (
,
( )
( )
dt
dV
p V C m
dt
T dc
m
comb fuel
CM
v
u
u u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
-
. . ) (
) (
,
( )
( )
( )
dt
dV
V
RT
V C m
dt
T dc
m
comb fuel
CM
v
u
u
u
u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
-
. . ) (
) (
,
Finite Heat Release
A typical heat release curve consists of an initial spark ignition phase,
followed by a rapid burning phase and ends with burning completion phase
The curve asymptotically approaches 1 so the end of combustion is defined
by an arbitrary limit, such as 90% or 99% complete combustion where
x
b
= 0.90 or 0.99 corresponding values for efficiency factor a are 2.3 and 4.6

The rate of heat release as a function of crank angle is:
( )

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
1
1
n
d
s
b
d
in
b
in
x
na
Q
d
dx
Q
d
dQ
u
u u
u u u
b in
dx Q dQ =
.99
( )
( )
( )
dt
dV
V
RT
V C m
dt
T dc
m
comb fuel
CM
v
u
u
u
u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
-
. . ) (
) (
,
( )
( )
( )
dt
dV
V
RT
d
dQ
dt
T dc
m
CM
v
u
u
u
u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
) (
Ideal gas model: mRT pV =
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
u

u d
dQ
V d
dV
V
p
d
dp 1
3 4 Isentropic Expansion
AIR





) (t w
dt
du
CM
CM
air

=
|
.
|

\
|

Isentropic Expansion : Variable Property Model

s
T

=
+
1
1
3
n
i
i
dv v
4
v

=
+
j
i
i j
dv v
1

=
+
2
1
3
i
i
dv v
1 3
dv v +
3
v
For a small compression ratio:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ) ( 1
1
1
1
T
i
i
i
i
i
v
v
T
T

u
u
u
u

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
Explicit Method:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1 1
1

=
i
T
i v i i
r T T
u
u u u
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1
1
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
i
T
i
i
i
i
i
v
v
T
T
u
u
u
u
u
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1
) ( 1
1
) ( 1
1
1

+
= =
i i i
T
i v
T
i v i
T
i v i i
r r T r T T
u u u
u u u u u u
Pressure Profile During Expansion
Ideal Gas Model:
( )
( )
( ) u
u
u
V
mRT
p =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ) ( 1
1 1
1

=
i
T
i v i i
r T T
u
u u u
Work Delivered during Expansion
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) u
u
u
u u u o dV
V
mRT
dV p W = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
} } }
= = =
BDC
TDC
BDC
TDC
BDC
TDC
V
dV
T mR dV p W W
ansion
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u u u u o
exp
( )
( )
( )
}
=
TDC
IVC
V
dV
T mR W
ansion
u
u
u
u
u
exp
Global Isentropic Expansion Process
The overall isentropic process between states 3 & 4:
}
=
4
3
1 2
pdv m U U
}
=
4
3
1 2
pdv U U
( )
( )
[
=

=
N
i
T
v
i
r T T
1
) ( 1
4 3
1

( )
( )

=
N
i
i
T
v
r T T 1
1
) ( 1
4 3

Constant Volume Heat Removal
1
1
4
4
T
P
T
P
=
AIR
Q
out

BC
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
0
) (t Q
dt
du
m
CM
CM
air
-
=
|
.
|

\
|
| | T UA
dt
du
m
CM
air
A =
|
.
|

\
|
41 Complete Cooling at constant volume
out
Q U U + =
4 1
out
T
T
v out
T
T
v
T
T
v
Q dT mc Q dT mc dT mc + = + =
} } }
1
0
1
0
4
0
41 Complete & Finite Duration Cooling
) ( ) (
) (
t W t Q
dt
mu d
CM
CM
CM
air
- -
=
|
.
|

\
|
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
dt
t dV
t p t T t UA
dt
t T dc
m
CM
v
A =
|
.
|

\
|
) (
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
dt
dV
p T T UA
dt
T dc
m
amb
CM
v
u
u u u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
) (
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
dt
dV
V
RT
T T UA
dt
T dc
m
amb
CM
v
u
u
u
u u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
) (
Surface Area for Cooling
Engine Heat Losses
For many engines, the heat losses can be subdivided:
ambient oil coolant loss
Q Q Q Q

+ + =
General range of various heat losses are:
Type of loss Range Remarks
Cooling 10 30 %

5 15%
Diesel engines on
higher side
Oil At low load higher
losses
Ambient 2 10%
Engine Cooling System
Measurement of Engine Heat Transfer
S I Engine Temperatures
Three of the hottest points are
around the spark plug,
the exhaust valve and port, and
the face of the piston.
Highest gas temperatures during
combustion occur around the spark
plug.
This creates a critical heat transfer
problem area.
The exhaust valve and port operate hot
because they are located in pseudo-
steady flow of hot exhaust gases.
The piston face is difficult to cool
because its is separated form the water
jacket or finned surface.
Computed Temperature of A Piston
Heat Transfer in Combustion Chambers
( )
c g
coolant gas
h k
x
h
T T
A
Q
q
1 1
+
A
+

= =

Gas to Surface Heat Transfer
Heat transfer to walls is cyclic.
Gas temperature T
g
in the combustion chamber varies greatly over and
engine cycle.
Coolant temperature is fairly constant.
Heat transfer from gas to walls occurs due to convection & radiation.
Convection Heat transfer:



Radiation heat transfer between cylinder gas and combustion chamber
walls is
( )
wall gas gc
conv
conv
T T h
A
Q
q = =

( )
( )
w
w
g
g
wall gas
wall gas gr
rad
rad
F
T T
T T h
A
Q
q
c
c
c
c
o

+ +

= = =

1 1
1
2 1
4 4

The Cyclic Integral

( ) ( )
}
= u u dV p W
cycle
( ) ( )
}
= u u dV p W
cycle
k
N W
P
cycle
engine

=
60
k=1:for two-stroke
cycle
k=2:for four-stroke
cycle