Hypothesis generating and hypothesis testing

Marjorie Lorch

Assignment One essay of 3,500-4,000 words to be submitted by 6pm, January 11th 2012.
**Both uploaded to Turnitin on Moodle and paper copy delivered to the office. (See handbook for details regarding deadlines, mitigating circumstances.)

This module is assessed by a structured essay which presents a critical reading of a piece of research literature to be selected from a list provided by the lecturer.

1) how this piece of research fits into the larger research context; 2) how well the particular research aims, objectives or goals were met; 3) the appropriateness of the method employed; 4) whether the evidence presented to support the research question was adequate; 5) whether the interpretation of findings was justified.

 Each of these 5 points should be given equal consideration. This should provide a characterization of why the research was carried out and an evaluation of how it was done, what was found and what it means. The essay should be presented with a clear structure and include an introduction and a conclusion. In this final section, consideration of alternative interpretations and/or reflections on further research innovations may be included.

Garrett, P. and Young, R. (2009) Theorizing affect in foreign language learning: An analysis of one learners responses to a communicative-based Portuguese course. The Modern Language Journal 93:209-226. https://readings.bbk.ac.uk/readings/G/Garrett&Young2009.pdf Rob, A. Martinsen, R.A., Baker, W., Bown, .J and Johnson, C. (2011) The Benefits of Living in Foreign Language Housing: The Effect of Language Use and Second-Language Type on Oral Proficiency Gains. The Modern Language Journal 95, 2, 274290. https://readings.bbk.ac.uk/readings/M/Martinsen2011.pdf Shin, S.J. and Milroy, L. (2000) Conversational codeswitching among Korean-English bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 4, 3, 351-383. Otheguy, R. and Stern, N. (2011) On so-called Spanglish. International Journal of Bilingualism 15, 85-100. Breeze, R. (2012) Legitimation in corporate discourse: Oil corporations after Deepwater Horizon. Discourse & Society 23,1, 3-18. Bassiouney, R. (2012) Politicizing identity: Code choice and stance-taking during the Egyptian revolution. Discourse & Society 23, 107-126. Fehringer, C. (2012) The lexical representation of compound words in English: evidence from aphasia. Language Sciences 34, 1, 65-75. Ibrahim, R. (2011) Literacy problems in Arabic: Sensitivity to diglossia in tasks involving working memory. Journal of Neurolinguistics 24, 5, 571-582. Catenaccio, P. et al. (2011) Discursive Perspectives on News Production. Journal of Pragmatics 43, 7 1841-2094. Carris, L. M. (2011) La Voz Gringa: Latino stylisation of linguistic (inauthenticity as social critique. Discourse and Society 22, 4, 474-490.

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative evidence addresses questions about how something is Quantitative evidence describes how much/how many

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative research is hypothesis generating Quantitative research is hypothesis testing

Qualitative Approach

Quantitative Approach

Questions
Research Question: The question the research itself is trying to answer Methodological Question: The questions asked in order to identify the best way to gather evidence to provide the answer to the research question

What are Hypotheses?

A predicted answer to a research question

Questions and Hypotheses

Qualitative research is typically theory building and hypothesis generating. The research focus is refined over the course of the data collection. The analysis of qualitative data results in the generation of new hypotheses, models and theories.

Questions and Hypotheses

Theory and the results of previous qualitative or quantitative research may be the starting point for generating specific hypotheses. Quantitative approaches test these hypotheses.

Research Goals and Results

When there is a question but not a hypothesis there is no clear expectation of particular results but rather a research objective and goal. This is typically pursued with qualitative methods. The outcome is a new description.

Research Goals and Results

When a prediction exists before the research is started there is an a priori hypothesis of expected results. This is typically pursued with quantitative methods. The outcome of prediction testing is evidence of a causal relationship between two or more variables. Testing the hypothesis indirectly tests the theory.

The role of theory

Preconceived ideas Basic assumptions Implicit perspectives

--Rarely explicitly stated

Commons Sense
Intuitively obvious Summarizes experience Simple **BUT ALSO Rarely focused on a problem Oversimplifies Vague or unmeasurable Predictions may cover all possible outcomes

Scientific Theories
Internally logical Avoid contradiction Consistent with existing facts Provides framework for organizing new facts Testable May lead to counter-intuitive or novel predictions Parsimoniousi.e., simple is best

Bad Theories
Unclearly defined foundational terms Concepts that are non-objective Too vague, leading to no predictions or multiple predictions for a given outcome

Scientific Understanding
Observation Classification Description Model Explanation Theory

What makes a good model?

The function of a model is to mediate between theory and data.

DOMAIN ASSUMPTIONS THEORY MODEL DATA

Types of Models
1. The model is Wrong That is, one that does not fit the data.
It is very useful to identify this through the gathering of research evidence.

Types of Models
2. The model is BAD That is, one that does not fit either the theory or the data. This can be determined through logical argument and a systematic review of existing data to show that the model is illformed.

Types of Models
3. TRIVIAL That is, one that fits any data.

This shows that the model is too powerful and can not be falsified.

Types of Models
4. MISCHARACTERISED That is, a model that fits another theory as well as the one intended. This means pursuing evidence in support of this model will not help theory building.

Types of Models
5. MISLEADING That is, one that does not fit the domain assumptions so that it appears to work but for the wrong reasons.

 The best way to unmask bad or trivial models is by using data and prediction techniques rigorously.

 Scientific knowledge develops through the testing of hypotheses with the potential to disprove theories.

For the philosophical foundations of this point and the work of Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn see: Lakotos, I and Musgrave, A. 1970. Criticism and the growth of knowledge. Cambridge University Press.

 A particular model or theory is often implicit in the choice of a particular research topic.

Consider one of these Research Questions and decide the Theoretical Framework and Methodological Approach which might be used to address it:
Which materials are effective in language learning? Does second language learning involve the same psycholinguistic processes as first language learning? Are there significant differences in the ways in which people communicate with the same or opposite gender? Do people from the same ethnic or linguistic background share the same cultural preferences and values? How are power relationships in the multilingual workplace marked? Are managers trained in the language and culture of their clients able to transact business more effectively? How do bilingual parents help their children acquire language?