CHAPTER 3:

ALTERNATING
CURRENT (AC)
CIRCUITS
PART II
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION
• Simplifying impedance in series and parallel is
similar to simplifying resistance in series and
parallel.

• Impedance in series can be combined to form a

single impedance by adding the individual
impedances.
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION contd.

where
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + … + ZN

• Impedance connected in parallel can be combined

to form a single impedance by the reciprocal
relationship.
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION contd.

where
1 1 1 1
   ... 
Z eq Z1 Z 2 ZN

and the equivalent admittance is

Yeq = Y1 + Y2 +…+ Y3
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION contd.

EXAMPLE:
Given Vs = 750 cos (5000t + 30°). Construct the
phasor domain equivalent circuit and calculate the
steady state current i(t) using the phasor method.

32mH
i

90Ω

Vs 5µF
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION contd.

From the given Vs, ω = 5000 rad/s, thus

ZL = jωL = j(5000)(32m) = j160Ω

ZC = -j/ωC = -j/(5000x5μ) = -j40Ω

The phasor transform of Vs is 750 30°

j160Ω
i

90Ω

750Ð30° -j40Ω
 SERIES & PERALLEL SIMPLICATION contd.

The equivalent impedance,

Z eq  90  j160  j 40
 90  j120
 15053.13
Applying Ohm’s law
V 75030
I   5  23.13
Z 15053.13

The steady state current,

i(t) = 5 cos (5000t – 23.13°)A

 VOLTAGE & CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
VOLTAGE DIVIDER

• The voltage divider has to be connected in a

series connected impedance.

Z1
V1  VS
Z1  Z 2

Z2
V2  VS
Z1  Z 2
 VOLTAGE & CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

CURRENT DIVIDER

• The current has to be divided to a branch or

parallel connected impedance.

Z2
I1  IS
Z1  Z 2

Z1
I2  IS
Z1  Z 2
 VOLTAGE & CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

EXAMPLE:

Use the concept of voltage division to find the

steady-state expression for Vo(t) in the circuit of the
Vg(t) = 100 cos 8000t V.
 VOLTAGE & CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

Solution:

Z L  j L  j8000  0.2   j1600

j j
ZC     j1000
C 8000  125 10 
9

Let Z1   300  j1600  

Z 2   500  j1000  
Z1  Z 2   800  j 600  
 VOLTAGE & CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

Applying voltage divider,

V0 
Z2
Vg 
 500  j1000 
1000
Z1  Z 2  800  j 600 
 111.8  100.3

V0  t   111.8cos  8000t  100.3  V

 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
• In dc circuit, the only power relationship
encounter is P = VI watts.

• This is referred to as real power or active power

and is the power that does useful work such as
light a lamp, power a heater and run an electric
motor.

• In ac circuit that contains inductance or

capacitance, a second component of power also
exists.

• This component termed reactive power, Q,

represents energy that oscillates back and forth
throughout the system.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• Since it first flows one way then the other way,

its average is zero; thus reactive power
contributes nothing to the average power to the
load.

• However it can’t be ignored because extra current

is required to create reactive power and this
current must be supplied by its source.

• For a circuit that contains resistive and reactive

elements, both active and reactive components of
power are present.

• This combination of real and reactive power is

termed apparent power, S.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• Power in ac circuits are divided into 3 categories:

– Active power, P (watts, W)
– Reactive power, Q (volt-ampere reactive, VAR)
– Apparent power, S (volt-ampere, VA)

• Let the voltage and current at the terminals of

the circuit be

v  t   Vm cos  t   v   Vm  v
i  t   I m cos  t  i   I m i
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• As in dc analysis, power can be obtain by

multiplying voltage and current.

• Same goes for ac analysis, however the power is

called instantaneous power, where

p(t) = v(t)i(t)

• This instantaneous power changes with time and

is therefore difficult to measure.

• Thus a more convenient measurement is needed.

The measurement is called average power.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

AVERAGE POWER

• Average power = Active power = Real power

P  Vrms I rms cos( v  i ) (W )

Vm I m
P cos( v  i ) (W )
2

where Vm Im
Vrms  and I rms 
2 2

• Average power, in watts, is the average of the

instantaneous power over one period.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

EXAMPLE:
Given that
v(t) = 120 cos (377t + 45°)
i(t) = 10 cos (377t - 10°)

find the average power.

Solution:
Vm I m 120  10 
P cos( v  i )  cos  45   10  
2 2
 600 cos  55 
 344.2W
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

EXAMPLE:

Calculate the average power absorbed by an

impedance Z = 30-j70Ω when a voltage V = 120 0°
is applied across it.

Solution:

The current through the impedance is

V 1200
I   1.57666.8 A
Z 30  j 70
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• The average power is

Vm I m 120  1.576 
P cos( v  i )  cos  0  66.8
2 2
 37.24W
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

APPARENT POWER & POWER FACTOR

• The apparent power is the product of the rms

values of voltage and current.

S  Vrms I rms  VA

• The unit is volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it
from the average power, which is measured in
watts.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• We know
P  Vrms I rms cos( v  i )
 S cos( v  i )

power factor,
pf  cos( v  i )
P

S

the angle θv - θi is called the power factor angle.

 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• The power factor is the cosine of the phase

difference between voltage and current. It is also
the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.

• The value of pf ranges between 0 – 1.

• For a purely resistive load, the voltage and

current are in phase, so that θv - θi = 0 and pf=1.

• For a purely reactive load θv - θi = ±90° and pf=0.

• For 0 < pf < 1, the pf is said to be leading or

lagging.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.
• Leading pf means that current leads voltage,
which implies a capacitive load.

• Lagging pf means that current lags voltage,

implying an inductive load.

• Leading and lagging pf can be determined by

using a phasor diagram.

• Steps to determined leads or lags using phasor

diagram:
1) Make sure the amplitude of the expression is +ve
value. use the following to change from –ve to +ve.
 sin A  sin( A  180)
 cos A  cos( A  180)
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

1) Make sure the function is in sine function. Change the

cos function into sine function by using

cos A  sin( A  90)

5) Draw the phasor diagram.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

1) From the phasor diagram, rotate (anti-clockwise) both of the

drawn expression to determined the leading or lagging pf.
From the rotation if the current follows the voltage then it is
said that the current lags voltage, thus the pf is lagging.

V(t)

i(t)
φ
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

EXAMPLE:

Determine the pf and average power delivered by

the source.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

Solution:

The total impedance is

 j2  4
Z  6  4 P( j 2)  6   6.8  j1.6  7  13.24
4  j2
thus Vrms 300
I rms    4.28613.24 A
Z 7  13.24

The power factor,

pf  cos  V   I   cos  0  13.24   0.9734

 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

Draw the phasor diagram

i(t)
13.24°

V(t)

Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagram, it can be seen that i(t)

leads v(t) by 13.24°. Thus the pf is a leading pf.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

The average power supply by the source is

P  Vrms I rms cos   v  i 

 30  4.286   0.9734 
 125W
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

COMPLEX POWER

• Complex power is the product of the rms voltage

phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms
current phasor. As a complex quantity, its real
part is real power P and its imaginary is reactive
power Q.

• Consider the folowing

v  t   Vm cos  t   v   Vm  v
i  t   I m cos  t  i   I m i
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

S  Vrms I rms
*

 Vrms I rms    v  i   VA

 S   v  i 
 P  jQ
  
P 2  Q 2   v  i 

Where Q is the reactive power (VAR)

• If:
– Q < 0 leading pf
– Q > 0 lagging pf
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

• Power triangle:

where S  P2  Q2
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

EXAMPLE:

Given v(t) = 60 cos(ωt-10°)

i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt+50°)

Find the complex and apparent powers, the real and

reactive powers and the power factor.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

Solution:

The complex power

S  Vrms I rms    v  i 
60 1.5
   10  50 
2 2
 45  60 VA
 22.5  j 38.97 VA

Thus the apparent power, S = 45 VA

real power, P = 22.5 W
reactive power, Q = -38.97 VAR
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

Power factor, pf = cos (-10°-50°) = 0.5

i(t)

50°

10°

V(t)

Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagram i(t) leads v(t), thus the pf

is leading.
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT contd.

Power triangle

P = 22.5 W

60°

Q = -38.97 VAR
S = 45 VA